L 111 
. A6 
1923 
no. 44 
Copy 1 


DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

BUREAU OF EDUCATION 


BULLETIN, 1923, No. 44 


OUTLINE OF EDUCATION SYSTEMS 
AND SCHOOL CONDITIONS 
IN LATIN AMERICA 


By GEORGE W. A. LUCKEY 

SPECIALIST IN FOREIGN EDUCATION SYSTEMS 
BUREAU OF EDUCATION 



WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1923 

















BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION. 

1923. 

No. 1. Diagnosis and treatment of young school failures. Helen T. Woolley and 
Elizabeth Ferris. 

No. 2. A school building program for Washington, N. C. Alice Barrows. 

No. 3. History of the Manual Training School of Washington University, St. 
Louis, Mo. Charles P. Coates. 

No. 4. Junior high schools of Berkeley, Calif. James T. Preston and others. 

No. 5. Recent development of parent-teacher associations. Ellen C, Lombard. 

No. 6. Home-economics education. Henrietta W. Calvin. 

No. 7. Educational work of the Young Men’s Christian Association. Wm. F. 
Hirsch. 

No. 8. Significant movements in city school systems. W. S. Deffenbaugh. 

No. 9. Supervision of one-teacher schools. Maud C. Newbury. 

No. 10. The public-school system of Arkansas. Part I. Digest of general report. 
No. 11. The public-school system of Arkansas. Part II. Public-school finance. 
Fletcher H. Swift. 

No. 12. Secondary education in 1921 and 1922. W. S. Deffenbaugh. 

No. 13. Art education: The present situation. R. B. Farnum. 

No. 14. Public education in Oklahoma. 

No. 15. The Bible in the public schools. Win. R. Hood. 

No. 16. Statistical survey of education, 1919-20. Florence DuBois. 

No. 17. Educational surveys. E. F. Buchner. 

No. 18. Medical education, 1920-1922. N. P. Colwell. 

No. 19. Agricultural education. George A. Works. 

No. 20. Recent advances in instruction in music. Will Earhart and C. N. Boyd. 
No. 21. Specimen junior high school programs of study. W. S. Deffenbaugh. 

No. 22. Educational work of the Knights of Columbus. Mark J. Sweany. 

No. 23. The social studies in civic education. Edgar Dawson. 

No. 24. Educational extension. Charles G. Maphis. 

No. 25. Recent developments in educational journalism. W. C. Ryan, jr. 

No. 26. Educational work of the Young Women’s Christian Association. 

No. 27. Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute. Prepared under the direction 
of Walter C. John. 

No. 28. Vocational education. Wm. T. Bawden. 

No. 29. Biennial survey of education, 1918-1920. 

No. 30. An Americanization program. E. J. Irwin. 

No. 31. Americanization in the United States. John J. Mahoney. 

No. 32. Record of current educational publications, May 1, 1923. 

No. 33. Educational hygiene. W. S. Small. 

No. 34. Higher education, 1920-1922. George F. Zook. 

No. 35. List of Bulletins of the Bureau of Education, 1906-1922, with index. 
Edith A. Wright. 

No. 36. Rural education. Katherine M. Cook. 

No. 37. Progressive tendencies in European education. C. W. Washbume. 

No. 38. Main streets of the Nation. A series of projects on highway transport for 
elementary schools. Florence C. Fox. 

No. 39. Consolidation and transportation problems. Report of the second national 
conference on consolidation of rural schools and transportation of pupils, 
Cleveland, Ohio, Feb. 26, 1923. J. F. Abel. 

No. 46. Report of a survey of the State institutions of higher learning in Kansas. 
George F. Zook, L. D. Coffman, and A. R. Mann. 

(Continued on page 3 of oover.) 


DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
U.$. BUREAU OF EDUCATION 


BULLETIN, 1923, No. 44 


OUTLINE OF EDUCATION SYSTEMS 
AND SCHOOL CONDITIONS 
IN LATIN AMERICA 


By GEORGE W. A. LUCKEY 

SPECIALIST IN FOREIGN EDUCATION SYSTEMS 
BUREAU OF EDUCATION 

X 



WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1923 
























Li 

.h 


% 


I 


ADDITIONAL COPIES 

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PURCHASER AGREES NOT TO RESELL OR DISTRIBUTE THIS 
COPY FOR PROFIT.—PUB. RES. 57, APPROVED MAY 11, 1922 

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DOCUMENTS Di vision* 






CONTENTS 


Part I.—South America. Page 

Introduction. 1 

Argentina. 2 

Brazil. 9 

Chile. 18 

Bolivia. 26 

Colombia.'. 32 

Ecuador. 37 

Paraguay. 44 

Peru. 49 

Uruguay. 55 

Venezuela. 60 

Part II.—Mexico, Cuba, and Central America. 

Mexico. 67 

Cuba. 74 

Central America. 80 

Guatemala. 82 

Honduras. 87 

Nicaragua. 92 

Salvador. 96 

Costa Rica. 102 

Panama. 106 

in 
























OUTLINE OF EDUCATION SYSTEMS AND SCHOOL 
CONDITIONS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


PART I.—SOUTH AMERICA. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The countries included, under the term “ Latin America ” are so 
extensive and important, and the effects of the World War, direct and 
indirect, on all systems of education have been so disturbing, that one 
is at a loss to know how best to treat the subject of foreign education 
systems in the space at command. The purposes of the report tend 
to modify the nature of the material used and to necessitate the omis¬ 
sion of material probably of more vital interest to others. Another 
annoying difficulty in the preparation of a satisfactory report has 
been the changing condition of education systems in many of the 
leading countries. The reorganization of national systems of educa¬ 
tion, as necessitated or suggested by the war, has not progressed far 
enough to become stabilized and to offer material of permanent value. 

Without some knowledge of previous conditions one can not under¬ 
stand nor appreciate progress. It has seemed advisable, therefore, to 
present briefly the working conditions or essential features of the 
systems of education as a background from which to observS progress. 
The writer has endeavored to keep in mind the gradation steps and 
promotion requirements of the public-school systems leading to grad¬ 
uation, degrees, and the highest'educational rewards; and such other 
features as tend to show the condition and direction of educational 
movements. The desirable data are not always to be had, and other 
material may be substituted not as a matter of choice, but of necessity. 

In the first part of the report the important countries of Argentina, 
Brazil, and Chile have been treated somewhat more in detail, and the 
other countries of South America less so, in order to avoid the unnec¬ 
essary duplication of similar facts. In the second part of the report, 
the education systems of Mexico and Cuba have been stressed and the 
countries of Central America given less in detail. With the exception 
of Brazil, in which the official language is Portuguese, the official lan¬ 
guage* of Latin America is Spanish, and to teach in the public schools 
of any of these countries it is quite essential to have a ready command 
of the language of the schools. 


l 




2 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


During the past few years there has been quite an educational 
awakening in the Latin American countries; and, notwithstanding the 
discouraging financial conditions, creditable progress has been made. 

In general, there have been marked tendencies toward standardiza¬ 
tion of instruction and centralization of authority, placing more 
responsibility in the conduct of schools in the Federal Government; 
giving less attention to the humanities, literary and classical educa¬ 
tion of the old regime, and more attention to the practical (natural 
and social) realities. 

Greater effort has been made to popularize education and extend 
its benefits to the masses. New provisions have been made in the 
primary education with the thought of reducing the illiteracy of the 
people, which is still unusually large. In many republics a new 
impetus is occurring in industrial, commercial, agricultural, technical, 
and professional education. Special effort is also being made to 
create a more efficient class of teachers, to extend their preparation, 
and to increase their emolument. In many States there is an effort 
to extend the courses of study leading to degrees and professional 
diplomas and to bring all private schools (church and lay) under Gov¬ 
ernment inspection and supervision. In a number of the republics 
the law requires that only citizens be employed as teachers in the 
public schools. In many countries annual school statistics are not 
kept, even census taking may be rare, and one must fall back in 
obtaining reliable data to earlier periods in which such data are to 
be had or accept estimates which are not always reliable. 

THE EDUCATION SYSTEM, INCLUDING PROGRESS, OF ARGENTINA. 

GENERAL FEATURES. 

The Republic of Argentina is divided into 14 Provinces, 10 Terri¬ 
tories, and 1 Federal District (Buenos Aires). It contains 1,153,118 
square miles, and its population in 1920 was 8,533,332, divided 
between male and female in the proportion of 54 to 46. The school 
population, covering the ages of 6 to 14, was 1,766,053, with an 
attendance enrollment of 1,076,045. In the same year the illiteracy 
in the population over 7 years of age was given as 35 per cent. 

The system of public instruction includes the usual divisions of 
primary, secondary, and higher education, and is under the immediate 
control and direction of the Minister of Justice and Public Instruction, 
a member of the cabinet. In 1919 there were 9,268 primary schools, 
of which 7,801 were public and 1,467 private, with 36,615 teachers and 
1,190,231 pupils. There were 42 national colleges (secondary schools), 
with 1,244 teachers and 11,022 students; 33 corresponding private 
institutions, with 398 teachers and 2,959 students; 82 normal schools, 
with 1,843 teachers and 14,202 students; 37 special schools (com¬ 
mercial, industrial, arts, blind, etc.), with 1,034 teachers and 11,081 


ARGENTINA. 


3 


pupils. Eight}^-two per cent of the teachers in the primary schools 
were women, 53 per cent in the normal schools, and 9 per cent in the 
colegios attended mostly by boys. The girls, for the purposes of 
secondary education, seem to elect the normal schools, which perform 
the double duty of preparing for higher education and for the pro¬ 
fession of teaching. 

By concession the Provinces are allowed the privilege of directing 
their own primary schools, but since these are heavily subsidized by 
the Government their management must conform to a certain extent 
to the wishes of the Federal Government advisory board. Under the 
special law known as the “Ley Lainez,” the Government is permitted 
to establish Federal schools on petition v.herever needed in the 
Provinces. As most of the Provinces are poor, the result of the Fed¬ 
eral subsidy and the power to supplement the vState schools give the 
central board a strong prestige in the matter of control. In some of 
the Provinces there are more Federal schools than provincial, and it 
is generally conceded that the Federal schools accomplish the better 
educational results. All schools, both public and private, are more 
efficient in the larger cities and more densely populated districts. 

ADMINISTRATION. 

Primary and secondary education of Argentina are either directly 
or indirectly under the control of the department of justice and public 
instruction. The minister is aided in the direction of primary educa¬ 
tion by a national advisory board (Consejo Nacional de Educacion) 
and local district boards, all members of which hold their, positions 
by appointment. In secondary education the administration is more 
centralized and the minister is assisted by the Federal board of gen¬ 
eral inspection (Inspeccion General de las Escuelas Secundarias). 
There are only 42 national colleges (colegios nacionales) in the Re¬ 
public, 10 of which are in the Federal capital and the others in the 
larger cities of the near-by Provinces. Hence administration of them 
by a central board becomes less difficult. Higher education has been 
left wholly in the control of the National Government. There is no 
department of the Argentine Government responsible for the univer¬ 
sity, the connection being directly with the President of the Republic. 

The administration of the provincial schools is under the same 
centralized plan as that of the National Government, all boards 
receiving appointments through the political party in power. This 
dual system of educational administration between State and Federal 
boards gives opportunity for serious difficulties—to illustrate: In 
June, 1921, with little previous warning, a decree was issued by the 
President closing all schools, public and private, primary and second¬ 
ary, in the Republic of Argentina because of a threatened plague of 
the grippe. Without questioning the authority of the chief executive 


4 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


or the necessity of the local situation, which no doubt varied con¬ 
siderably in a country 2,000 miles in length, the decree was observed 
at once and the schools, both provincial and Federal, throughout the 
Republic were closed. There were exceptions, however, and one was 
especially noticeable. In the Province of Buenos Aires, which begins 
at the very limits of the capital city, the provincial schools received 
orders from the State government that the classes would continue 
until an investigation was made, and if found necessary authority to 
close would be forthcoming from the proper State authorities. 

Private schools, church and lay, covering about one-fifth of pri¬ 
mary education and nearly one-third of secondary education, are 
independently managed, but are subject to Federal supervision and 
must conform to the standardized curriculum. 

PRIMARY EDUCATION. 

The full course of the State and Federal primary schools is six 
years in length, covering the first six grades, and prepares the pupil 
for entrance into the normal schools and national colleges. Edu¬ 
cation is secular, free, and compulsory from 6 to 14 years of age or 
until completing the primary grades. The compulsory law, however, 
js not rigidly enforced, especially in the less populated districts. 
The more ambitious pupils desirous of secondary education are 
able to complete the primary grades by their twelfth year and the 
following five years’ course of the better colegios by their sixteenth 
year, thus obtaining the bachelor’s degree after 11 years of schooling. 

Coeducation is not common, boys and girls attending separate 
schools; only in the primary grades are the sexes sofhetimes taught 
together. In the primary department the statistics (1919) showed 
that there were about 3 per cent more girls than boys, while the 
school census of the same year showed about 8 per cent more boys 
than girls. In secondary education, including both normal schools, 
attended mostly by girls, and colegios, attended mostly by boys, 
there was a slight advantage in the enrollment of girls—i. e., 13,515 
girls and 12,927 boys. 

One not familiar with the Latin-American systems of education 
will be surprised at the array of subjects offered in the primary course, 
which are as follows: Spanish, including reading and writing, arith¬ 
metic and geometry, history and geography, nature study—plants, 
animals, minerals—physiology, physics, and chemistry, drawing, 
manual training, domestic science, music, physical education. The 
advisability of teaching such subjects as physics and chemistry in 
the primary grades will be questioned by many persons, but as only 
the simplest elements are presented and described, the pupil needs 
only to memorize the simplest facts in preparation for future exam- 
inafio is. 


ARGENTINA. 


5 


SECONDARY EDUCATION. 

There are two special types of secondary schools—the national 
college (colegio nacional) and the normal school (escuela normal). 
The two schools are about equally divided as to attendance; the 
colegios are elected by boys and the normal schools by girl§. There 
are a few mixed schools of both types. The better colegios offer a 
five years’ course based on a six years’ primary course, one year less 
of schooling than that required of the graduate of our senior high 
school; the normal schools offer courses of two and four years, 
principally academic, and based on graduation from the six years’ 
primary course, equivalent in point of time to the eighth-grade 
elementary and the tenth-grade junior high school. Both courses 
in the normal schools offer work in pedagogy and practice teaching; 
the two years’ course is accepted for emergency teachers in the dis¬ 
tricts or rural schools, the four years’ course is usually elected by girls 
seeking secondary education or in preparation for primary and 
secondary teachers. In some schools a fifth year is added, devoted 
more fully to professional education and practice teaching. 

The colegios are the special fitting schools for the universities and 
other professional institutions; upon the graduate is conferred the 
bachelor’s degree. The normal schools, with a shorter course, do 
not rank as high, but year for year they are considered the academic 
equivalent. The subjects of study in the national colegios are: 
Spanish, French, English, Italian; arithmetic, algebra, geometry, 
trigonometry; physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, mineralogy, 
geology, anatomy, physiology, hygiene; history, geography, civics, 
drawing, physical education, military drill. The subjects of study 
in the corresponding normal schools are Spanish, French, arithmetic, 
algebra, geometry, physics, chemistry, history, geography, natural 
history, psychology, pedagogy, practice teaching, music, drawing, 
domestic economy (girls), manual training (boys), physical education. 
It should be mentioned that there are no electives; all subjects in 
the curriculum are required of all. 

There is an increasing number of private secondary schools covering 
similar ground to the Federal colegios, and a few special preparatory 
schools of secondary rank, as the commercial colegio operated by 
the University of Buenos Aires. As all private schools must conform 
to Government regulations and submit their students to inspection 
and Government examination for promotion, they do not present 
any specially different education problem. 

HIGHER EDUCATION. 

Under this head fall the universities and professional schools. 
There are national universities in Buenos Aires, Cordoba, La Plata, 
and Rosario; provincial universities at Santa le and Tucuman. 




6 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


These universities through their different faculties (schools) offer 
courses varying from two to six years in length. In the University 
of Buenos Aires, the largest and most representative, the philosophical 
or arts department offers a four-year course, leading in connection 
with a thesis to the degree of doctor of philosophy. Thus the student 
under favorable circumstances is able to obtain the Ph. D., or highest 
cultural degree, on 15 years of schooling. Student life and organiza¬ 
tions are entirely different from those found in similar institutions 
in the United States. There are no student organizations, no class 
yells, no college songs, no fraternity groupings, no athletic fields, 
no college games. 

Other faculties or colleges of the University of Buenos Aires are 
the college of medicine, with a six years’ course (pharmacy five years 
dentistry four years), which ranks first among the departments of 
the university and is represented by about half of the student body; 
the college of law, with a five years’ course leading to the doctor’s 
degree; the college of exact sciences, covering courses in industrial, 
mechanical, and civil engineering, five and six years in length. The 
college of economics and the college of agriculture and veterinary 
have been established more recently. Under the college of law and 
social science a two years’ course in foreign diplomacy is offered. 
In the University of La Plata, the second important university of 
the Republic, there has been recently established a college of edu¬ 
cation. 

EDUCATION AND SALARY OF TEACHERS. 

Teaching in Argentina can hardly be classed under the professions. 
The primary schools have classes only 34 hours per day, leaving the 
teacher free for half the day to seek other employment. In secondary 
education the teachers are appointed to positions by “catedras” or sub¬ 
jects to be taught, usully one to three. This gives opportunity for 
teaching to become a temporary side line to other professions. “The 
statistics of 1920 show that, out of 1,333 teachers in the colegio 
nacional, 521 were either professional doctors, lawyers, or engineers, 
not to mention other professions.” Students and clerks may thus 
be engaged for part of the day as the teacher of a subject in the school. 
This tends to check the growth of the professional spirit which is 
encouraged by prominent educators. 

The requirement of the teacher in the primary school is graduation 
from the four-year normal schools above described, but only in the 
cities is this requirement met. Outside of the cities the country has 
been obliged to authorize teachers after only two years of the normal 
course and by special-privilege certificates. The majority of primary 
teachers, however, are normal-school graduates, possessing the title 
“Maestro normal.” In the secondary schools there is no fixed require- 


ARGENTINA. 


1 


ment, though it is usually demanded that the teachers hold at least 
a normal-school diploma, and higher studies are encouraged for 
teachers of secondary instruction. In the university the require¬ 
ments, according to the regulations of the National University of 
Buenos Aires, are as follows: “University diplomas, Argentine or 
foreign, or persons of specially known competence.” 

TEACHERS* SALARY. 

In Argentina the salary of teachers based on the time employed in 
service is higher than the average in other countries employing 
full-time teachers. The double control of the primary department be¬ 
tween the Federal and provincial school authorities creates an annoy¬ 
ing difference in the pay of primary teachers; usually the salary of 
teachers is much lower under the management of the provincial 
boards, and in cases difficult to collect. The greater number of 
primary teachers, however, are under the direction of the national 
board, and the wages there are fixed and definite. In the primary 
department of the Federal schools there are three divisions of rank, 
as follows: The first or lowest, covering the first 5 years of teaching 
experience; the second, covering the second 5 years of experience; 
the third or highest, covering teaching experience of more than 10 
years. The first pays (at par rate of exchange) SI09, the second 
S141, and the third S161 per month. As mentioned above, the 
primary-school day is only 3 hours and 20 minutes in length, begin¬ 
ning at 8 o’clock and closing at 11.20, or, if in the afternoon, begin¬ 
ning at 1 and closing at 4.20. There may also be evening sessions, 
but no teacher is permitted to hold a position in both morning and 
afternoon session, though she might be permitted to hold a second 
position in the shorter evening session. There are six days of school 
per week, making 20 hours of teaching per week at the above salary. 
For work in the evening session the teacher receives additional pay 
and is also free to seek other employment at odd hours. 

In the secondary schools the “catedra” system of employing and 
paying teachers by subjects taught is used. There seems to be no 
difference made for experience, language teachers receiving $13 per 
subject per hour, or $78 a month for a 50-minute period class per day. 
Other teachers are paid $16 an hour, or $96 a month for corresponding 
periods. Four “catedra” is the maximum allowance officially, but 
a teacher is free to teach in private schools or engage in business out¬ 
side of school hours as in the primary department. The salaries of 
university professors vary in different institutions, but the more 
usual rate is $109 per “ catedra” or subject taught three or four hours 
per week. 


8 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


There is a pension system covering all departments of the public 
schools, and 5 per cent of the salary of all teachers is reserved each 
month to be applied to the pension fund. After 25 years of service 
in the Government schools, the instructor is “jubilado” or pensioned 
on full salary. 

PROGRESS. 

The effect of the World War has been felt in Argentina as in other 
countries, and the financial condition of the country has prevented 
the Government from devoting large sums of money to most worthy 
educational projects. But here, as elsewhere, it has been difficult to 
chill the ardor of educational leaders. Among the worthy educa¬ 
tional movements showing progress may be mentioned the following: 
The forward movement and increasing influence of women in educa¬ 
tion, overcoming the traditional Latin American culture of the past 
which guarded the woman in her home as something delicate and in 
danger of injury if exposed; to stiffen the requirements of teachers 
and to increase the function of the national colleges to something 
more than mere fitting schools to the universities and professional 
schools; the efforts of important business men of Buenos Aires and 
the Workers’ Association organized three yearn ago, looking to the 
broader dissemination of scientific economic knowledge along con¬ 
structive lines among the working classes of the city of Buenos Aires; 
the improvement in scientific interest in national hygiene and sanita¬ 
tion in which Argentina holds a leading place among the countries of 
South America; the effort of the Federal Government to reduce the 
amount of illiteracy among the people, for which a record of children 
from 6 to 14 who can not read and write is taken by the teacher an¬ 
nually (March and April); the reorganization (1919) of the teachers, 
association of the Province of Buenos Aires open to delegates from 
the Federal capital, the Provinces, and Territories, not to mention 
other lines of interest. 


Steps in the education system of Argentina. 


School or grade. 

Proximate ages. 

7 

8 

9 

10 

a 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

[ 

20 

21 

22 

23 

Primary school. 


















Normal school. 

Secondary school (colegio nacional). 

f. 






X 














University: 

Liberal arts. 










| 

Medical school. 














Law school. 














College of exact science—including indus¬ 
trial, mechanical, and civil engineering 











... 














(5 to 6 years). 











! ! ri i 






















































BRAZIL. 


9 


THE STATUS AND MOVEMENT OF EDUCATION IN BRAZIL. 

GENERAL STATEMENTS. 

Brazil consists in a union of 20 locally independent States, one 
National Territory (Acre, purchased in 1902) and one Federal Dis¬ 
trict (Rio de Janeiro). It is the largest Republic of the Latin American 
group, containing 3,275,510 square miles and a population (1920) of 
30,645,296, an average of 9.3 per square mile. The school population 
as given in “Diario Official” of February 21, 1922, was 3,571,877 (ages 
covered not indicated); the school enrollment 1,030,752; the school 
attendance 678,684, or but 29 per cent of the school population, 
leaving 71 per cent of the school population unprovided for. The 
school population as given above represents but 12 per cent of the 
total population and must cover fewer ages than given in most coun¬ 
tries. 

There have been many difficulties in the way of popular education, 
such as the great extent of undeveloped country, sparsely settled 
with a mixed population, rich in native products; great variation in 
climate and local conditions; the early form of proprietary govern¬ 
ment and aristocratic education; national isolation, with the lack of 
democratic sentiment to stimulate progress in the masses. Condi¬ 
tions, however, are changing for the better, and there is a hopeful 
outlook. In many of the coastal and larger cities educational condi¬ 
tions are more favorable, but here, too, it is as yet higher education 
of the few, not the many. In the statistical annual of Brazil, published 
in 1916, the percentage of illiteracy in the total population varied from 
48.1 per cent (city of Rio de Janeiro) to 95 per cent in some of the less 
favored States, averaging throughout Brazil 74.6 per cent. In 1921 
there were in all Brazil 17,295 primary schools, mostly of the one-room 
type, of which 11,342 were State schools, 2,532 municipal schools, and 
3,421 private schools. There were 327 sceondary schools with 
30,258 pupils, 151 professional schools with 19,294 pupils, 30 normal 
schools, 25 degree-giving colleges (faculties), and one Federal uni¬ 
versity (Rio de Janeiro). 

SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION. 

The school system of Brazil is administered by Federal, State, and 
municipal authorities. For the most part education is a State affair, 
controlled and directed by the individual State authorities. This is 
especially true of primary education, but less so in secondary and 
higher education. The Federal authority is charged with the admin¬ 
istration of education in the Federal District and Territory and the 
standardizing and direction of secondary and higher education 
throughout the nation. The municipal authorities have charge and 


10 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


direction of local school affairs. There is a growing tendency toward 
centralization of education and of increasing the powers and respon¬ 
sibility of the Federal authorities to include primary education also. 

At the head of the Brazilian school system is the Minister of Justice 
and Internal Affairs, a cabinet member appointed by the President. 
He is assisted in the administration of public instruction by the 
superior council of instruction, among the duties of which are: The 
maintenance of education in the Federal District and Territory; to 
provide in part for secondary and higher education throughout the 
Republic, and by means of subsidies, model schools, and an accred¬ 
iting system to standardize and give direction to all secondary and 
higher education; besides the technical army and navy schools and 
those for the various classes of defectives, to maintain the national 
schools of fine arts, music, mines, agriculture, and veterinary medicine, 
normal school of arts and trades, agricultural training schools, national 
institutes for the blind, and for the deaf; colleges (faculties) of law 
in Sao Paulo and Recife, colleges of medicine in Bahia and Rio de 
Janeiro, poly technical school and the Collegio Pedro Segunda in Rio 
de Janeiro; to exercise general oversight of the coordinated (accred¬ 
ited) institutions, to interpret the school law, and decide on appeals. 

The superior council of instruction consists of a president appointed 
by the President of Brazil, who must not occupy any other official 
position except that of rector of the university; six directors of 
official institutions maintained by the Federal Government; one 
professor of each of such institutions, the latter being selected by the 
respective faculties. One very important function of this board in 
the promotion of education is to decide after due investigation regard¬ 
ing applications for coordination or the recognition of institutions 
as being of equivalent rank in quality of instruction. Graduates of 
such coordinated secondary schools are granted like privileges to the 
graduates of the Federal model secondary school, the Collegio Pedro 
Segunda of Rio de Janeiro. 

Education in Brazil is largely an independent function of the 
States, especially so in primary education. In most States some 
provision has been made for secondary education and in a few States 
for higher education. The public instruction maintained by the 
States is under the immediate direction of the governor, assisted by 
the general secretary of the State. The general secretary of the State 
is assisted by a council of education, consisting of the general secretary 
as chairman and six other members selected by the governor. The 
States are usually divided into inspection districts having a State 
academic inspector for each district, appointed by the governor, and 
usually a medical inspector. In each municipality there is a local 
school board, consisting of the mayor and two or three local school 
inspectors, also appointed by the governor. State institutions which 


BRAZIL. 


11 


are “coordinated” with Federal schools, even though supported 
exclusively by the State, must conform to the requirements of the 
superior council of instruction in Rio de Janeiro. 

THE SCHOOL PERIOD. 

The school year varies in length and time of beginning among the 
States and even within the States in different localities, institutions, 
and grades. The usual date of beginning the primary and normal 
schools is from the 1st of February to the middle of March and of 
closing from the 15th of November to the 15th of December; the date 
of opening the secondary and higher schools is from the 1st to the 15th 
of April, and of closing from the 15th to the last of November. There 
are two semesters per year separated by a two to four weeks’ vacation 
sometime in June. The long vacation falls in December and January. 
The length of the school year is from 7 to 10 months, the usual length 
being 9 months; a few of the favored municipalities, as Rio de 
Janeiro, maintain a session of 10 months. The length of the school 
day varies in different neighborhoods, but is usually from four to 
five hours in length, and the school week consists of six days. Owing 
to the insufficiency of school facilities, in many localities there are 
two separate sessions of school per day, usually of three or four 
hours each. Since promotion depends wholly upon examination, 
the time element and school attendance is not stressed as in this 
country. 

PRIMARY EDUCATION. 

The length of the primary course is from two to five years, though 
in the great majority of States throughout the Republic it does not 
exceed three years. There is a growing sentiment to extend the 
length of the primary course to four or five years, but owing to the 
discouraging amount of illiteracy and the limited school facilities, 
the prevailing thought is to retain the present course or shorten it 
in order to increase the school attendance and reduce illiteracy. 
The primary school age is from 7 to 12 or 13; in a few municipalities 
there is now compulsory attendance covering these ages, or until 
completion of the three-years’ primary course. In all States primary 
education is free but not compulsory; in a few cities provision is 
made for kindergarten education. 

There are five special types of primary schools: Isolated schools 
(escolas isoladas) consisting of one room with a single teacher, rep¬ 
resenting about 90 per cent of the whole; combined schools (escolas 
rounidas), a number of isolated schools brought together without 
changing the plan of organization; grouped schools (grupes esco- 
lares), representing the union of several isolated schools in one graded 
school, usually under a director and the teachers covering one instead 


12 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


of three grades; model schools (escolas model os), perfected primary 
schools, often operated in conjunction with normal schools; com¬ 
plementary schools (escolas complementaros), which are advanced 
primary schools of two or three years’ course, based on the two or 
three years’ ordinary primary course. Considering the length of the 
primary course, the subjects of study may seem rather ambitious to 
one not familiar with the system; they are: Portuguese (reading, 
writing, etc.), arithmetic, geometry, geography, history, natural sci¬ 
ence, drawing, manual training, gymnastics. There are boys’, girls’, 
and mixed schools. The last are permitted to admit children only 
from the ages of 6 to 10, while the separate schools admit children 
up to 15 years of age. 


SECONDARY EDUCATION. 

There are two main types of public secondary schools in Brazil: 
The collegios (gymnasios, lyceus), principally with a five years’ course, 
attended mostly by hoys, and the public normal schools with the 
usual four years’ course, attended mostly by girls, from 75 to 95 per 
cent, in preparation as teachers. Both schools require for entrance 
the completion of the advanced primary course covering five years of 
schooling and an entrance examination. The students of the normal 
schools must be between 14 and 25 years of age, and those of the 
collegios over 11 years. The collegios lead to the bachelor’s degree in 
some cities—as Bahia—on a six years’ course to the master’s degree, 
and fit for the university and better professional schools, to enter 
which the matriculation examination is also required. Some of the 
better private lyceus, covering both primary and secondary educa¬ 
tion, lead to the bachelor’s degree in a nine years’ course. The nor¬ 
mal schools give a shorter academic course and some instruction in 
theory and practice of teaching leading to the teachers’ certificate. 
In many communities the normal schools furnish the only public sec¬ 
ondary schools for girls and are attended by many girls not in prepa¬ 
ration for teachers, The subjects of study and time requirement in 
the normal schools and collegios are shown in another part of this 
report. 

The Collegio Pedro II (National Secondary School), maintained by 
the Federal Government, is divided into two sections, a beading 
school and a day school, and is considered the model in the field of 
secondary education. There are 40 other “coordinated” secondary 
institutions throughout Brazil, 21 State and 19 private schools, 
rated as on a par with the Collegio Pedro II by the Superior Educa¬ 
tional Council, which body keeps them under inspection to insure the 
maintenance of the standard. Only these “coordinated” institu¬ 
tions are permitted to hold final examinations and award diplomas. 


BRAZIL. 


13 


TRADE SCHOOLS. 

The trade schools maintained by the Federal Government in Rio de 
Janeiro and other important cities are of two types—primary and 
secondary, open for boys only. The lower-grade schools aim to 
prepare trade apprentices and to give primary instruction and the 
maximum of training in the trade taught. In the secondary trade 
schools the student either perfects himself in one of the fine arts or in 
a trade which requires expert skill, or he increases his knowledge in 
the humanities in order to become a teacher in a primary trade school. 
The secondary trade courses extend over four years, the normal course 
over five, covering academic courses much the same as the normal 
schools, and besides include courses for mechanics, bench workers, 
plumbers, blacksmiths, metal finishers, machinists, carpenters, cab¬ 
inetmakers, tailors, and shoemakers. 

HIGHER EDUCATION. 

Most States of the Union do not possess institutions more advanced 
than the normal schools and collegios. In a numbqr of the larger 
cities there are independent “faculties” (colleges) of law, medicine, 
pharmacy, engineering, and dentistry. In the entire Republic there 
are nine schools of law, six of medicine, five of engineering, one of 
pharmacy, two of dentistry, eight of pharmacy and dentistry, one of 
philosophy and letters, and two of agriculture. There is but one 
Federal university, the University of Rio de Janeiro, founded in 1920 
by the fusion of the schools of medicine, law, and technology of that 
city, the government of which consists in a rector as chairman, who is 
also president of the superior council of instruction, and a university 
council composed of the directors of the three schools, forming the 
university, and two professors from each of the three schools, elected 
by the faculties thereof. The matter is earnestly considered (1922) 
of establishing other universities similar to that of Rio de Janeiro in 
Sao Paulo, Minas Geraes, Bahia, and Pernambuco by fusing of the 
faculties in those States. 

Higher education is mostly within the hands of the central author¬ 
ity, and through the system of inspection and accrediting all faculties 
may be placed on the same rank. For matriculation in any of the 
coordinated faculties one must have completed the five-year course 
of the collegio and passed the special entrance examination. The full 
law course covers five years, that of medicine and of engineering six, 
pharmacy and dentistry three, agricultural engineering and veteri¬ 
nary four. The better Government engineering schools based on 10 
years of preparation for entrance, followed by a year’s preparatory 
course, two years of a general course, and three years of a special 
course in civil, industrial, electrical, architectural, etc., engineering, 
54894°—23-2 


14 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


compare favorably with such institutions in other countries. Be¬ 
sides the coordinated faculties designated above, there are many more 
of lower rank not accredited nor coming under Federal supervision. 

QUALIFICATION AND PAY OF TEACHERS. 

As indicated above, the normal schools quite generally in the larger 
municipalities and more densely populated States perform the double 
duty of furnishing secondary education and of preparing teachers for 
the better primary schools. Jn some cities, as Rio de Janeiro, Recife, 
Sao Paulo, etc., only normal graduates are employed as teachers; but 
in less favored States and in rural and urban primary schools in most 
States the examination requirement for teachers can be met by 
graduates of the “Escola Complementar ” covering six, or at most 
but seven, years of schooling. Primary teachers are usually of four 
classes, as follows: The lower or first class representing beginning 
teachers in districts remote from railroads and conveniences; the 
second class in districts near railroads; the third class in districts 
served by railroads; the fourth class in municipalities. 

The program and course of study are planned to be uniform in 
quality throughout, but the salaries increase and the teaching service 
improves from the first to the fourth class. Beginning primary 
teachers are appointed to the first class only from a graded list of 
eligibles. After one year of teaching the teacher may be promoted to 
the second or third class, and after two years of teaching she may be 
promoted to the fourth class, provided she qualifies in a competitive 
examination before the committee of the council of education. The 
salary schedule varies somewhat among the States; that of Pernam¬ 
buco, which is typical, is as follows: Assistant teacher, 1:440$ 
(milreis)—at the present rate of exchange 5$ (milreis), equal $1 
United States currency, or 1:440$, equal $288; first-class teacher, 
2:160$ ($432); second-class teacher, 2:400$ ($480); third-class teacher, 
2:880$ ($576); fourth-class teacher, 3:600$ ($720). 

The usual salary of teachers in the normal schools and collegios is 
5:760$ ($1,152) per annum, except teachers of manual training and 
domestic science subjects, in which the salary is 4:320$ ($864). In 
higher institutions full professors receive 9:600$ ($1,920) and sub¬ 
stitute professors receive 6:900$ ($1,380). Professors usually spend 
at most but three hours per week in teaching, and are otherwise occu¬ 
pied as practicing lawyers, journalists, authors, physicians, engineers, 
etc. They are able men, but their chief activity is not their teaching. 
This practice of engaging teachers by subjects taught is common 
throughout Latin-Am erica, both in secondary and higher education. 
The school attendance of students is also modified by it. There is 
little or no professional spirit, as we know it, in student or teacher. 
Teachers of the State normal schools and collegios are appointed by 
the governor from an eligible list of experienced teachers obtained 
through competitive examination, all of whom must be citizens and 
at least 21 years of age. 


BRAZIL. 


15 


ART AND TRADE SCHOOLS. 

There are three schools of fine arts in the city of Rio de Janeiro, 
as follows: Escola das Bellas Artes, maintained by the Federal 
Government, giving courses in painting, sculpture, design, and 
architecture; Lyceu das Artes e Officios, supported by private 
initiative and Government appropriation, more elementary than the 
first, giving rudimentary instruction in painting, drawing, modeling, 
and designing; Instituto Nacional de Musica, maintained by the 
Federal Government, offering courses in instrumental and vocal 
music. 

There are a number of trade schools in Rio de Janeiro, some 
maintained by the city and several by the Federal Ministry of Agri¬ 
culture. These take students with only a primary education and 
instruct them in the trades and in the domestic arts. Some attempt 
to give a primary education along with manual training. In these 
schools only the rudiments of drawing are taught, and no courses 
in industrial designing are given. 

FORWARD MOVEMENT. 

During 1921 the Minister of Justice and Internal Affairs called an 
interstate conference on primary instruction which met in Rio de 
Janeiro, October 12, 1921. Among the important recommendations 
of this national conference were the following: 

1. The Federal Government is competent to collaborate with the States in the 
matter of primary education, and may participate by conceding subsidies to State, 
municipal, and private schools in return for the privilege of inspection and coor¬ 
dination. 

2. The State should undertake to maintain schools already existing, and elevate 
State expenditures for primary instruction to at least 10 per cent of its total revenue, 
reserving for a school fund 2 per cent of any annual surplus. Federal subsidies would 
be limited to primary schools created in the future, the amount of such to vary from 
30 to 70 per cent of the cost of operation of such schools. 

3. The National Congress is recognized as having joint powers with State congresses 
to decree compulsory attendance. Such compulsory attendance should be effective 
within a radius of 2 kilometers around the schools. Private enterprises employing 
minors should provide such minors with primary education. 

4. Primary schools to be created or subventioned by the Federal Government should 
be of two classes, urban schools having a four-year course, and rural schools having 
a three-year course; also night schools for adults, giving a one-year course. 

5. The Federal Government should establish in each State schools for backward 
pupils and should train normal teachers especially for this work. 

6. The Federal Government should establish a normal school or subsidize an exist¬ 

ing normal school in each State, entering into agreement with State Governments 
for the standardization and coordination of all normal-schools. All normal-schools 
should give a two-year course, normal school students should be at least 15 years 
of age, and should have completed the secondary (gymnasial) courses in official or 
coordinated schools. * * * 

7. The Federal Government should, furthermore, establish one or more superior 
normal schools for the training of inspectors and normal-school teachers. 


16 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


8. A national school fund should be established, consisting of contributions from 
National, State, and municipal taxes, to be deposited in the National Treasury at 
the disposition of the national council of education. * * * 

9. Primary instruction should be given only in the national language. Geography 
and history of Brazil must be taught, even in private schools, by Brazilian-born 
teachers. No school, public or private, should teach a foreign language to children 
under 11 years of age, excepting individual instruction given at home and at schools 
attended only by foreigners. 


Another important congress of secondary and higher education 
was called to meet in connection with the Centennial Anniversary 
Celebration in Rio de Janeiro, September, 1922. Among the prin¬ 
cipal subjects scheduled for consideration were the following: 

1. Should a ministry of public instruction be established, and should there be 
created in the Federal Capital a council of education to study Brazilian educational 
problems in general? 

2. Should the Federal Government, by agreement with the States, participate in 
primary, secondary, and professional education throughout the country? 

3. What should be the nature of the University of Rio de Janeiro, and should 
universities similar thereto be established in the States of Sao Paulo, Minas, Bahia, 
and Pernambuco? 

4. Should secondary education be given a classical stamp? 


The schedule of studies of the three years’ complementary course, 
embracing 24 classes of 50 minutes each per week (six days per 
week), is as follows: 


Hours. 


Hours. 


Portuguese. 11 

French and elements ®f Latin. 11 

Geography and history. 9 

Mathematics. 8 

Physics and natural science. 7 

Music. 6 


Drawing. 6 

Manual training. 6 

Gymnastics. 8 

Total number of hours. 72 

or 24 per week per year. 


Weekly schedule of the four-year normal school. 


Subjects. 

Prescribed hours. 

First 

year. 

Second 

year. 

Third 

year. 

Fourth 

year. 

Portuguese. 

3 

3 

2 

3 

3 

2 

2 


French. 


Civil government. 

2 

3 

2 

3 

Instruction in method of teaching. 

Geography and map drawing. 

3 


Geography of Brazil. 

3 



Arithmetic. 

3 



Arithmetic and algebra. 

Gpotn p+riT 

3 



ut/Uiiic try... 

History of the world. 


3 

3 


History of Brazil... 

Political economy and civil government. 



2 

2 

Phvscis and chemistry. 



4 

3 

Natural science. 

Hygiene. 



2 

3 

Drawing. 

3 

3 


Music. 

Physical culture. 

3 

3 


3 

3 

Domestic science. 

2 

1 

2 

2 

1 

Domestic economics. 

Manual labor. 

Total hours per week. 



1 

23 

22 

24 

20 



























































BRAZIL, 


17 


Time schedule of the standard secondary school ( the Collegio Pedro II o/Riode Janeiro). 


Subjects. 

Hours per week each year. 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

Portuguese. 

3 

3 

3 



French . 

3 

3 

3 



English or German. 



3 

3 

3 

Latin. 

3 

3 

3 



Geography (general). 

3 





Geography of Brazil and cosmography. 


3 




History (universal).7..T..'.. 




3 


History of Brazil. 





1 

Arithmetic. 


3 




Algebra and plane geometry. 



3 



Solid geometry and trigonometry. 




3 


Phvsics and chemistry"..* *.. 




3 

3 

Natural history.". 





3 

Philosophy...*. 





3 

Literature*. 





3 

Drawing. 

3 

3 

3 

3 


Physical training. 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Total hours per week (50-minute periods). 

17 

20 

20 

17 

18 


The above is the reouired standard secondary course to which all coordinated (accredited) secondary 
institutions, both public and private, must conform. 


Weekly program of instruction of the Pernambuco High School (Gymnasio Pernambuco. 1 ) 


Subjects. 


Drawing. 

Portuguese. 

Latin. 

French. 

English. 

German. 

Geography. 

Gymnastics. 

Chorography. 

Arithmetic. 

Plane geometry. 

Geometry and trigonometry 

Algebra. 

Physics and chemistry. 

Universal history. 

Brazilian history. 

Natural history. 

Psychology and logic. 

Total hours per week. 


Hours per week each year. 


First. 


16 


Second. 


19 


Third. 


24 


Fourth. 


18 


Fifth.* 


20 


* This is a coordinated (standardized) high school covering praetically the same course as that given in 

the model Federal high school in Rio de Janeiro (Collegio Pedro Segundo). . 

* The regular students of the high school require five years to complete the course and receive the diploma, 
but special students by carrying more hours per week are able to complete the course in two or three years 
and meet on examination the entrance requirement to the professional schools For this reason not more 
than a third of the high school students are regular; the others are specials taking up the work by subjects 
and generally completing the course in three years or less. 
























































































18 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


Subject and time schedule of the six years' 


gymnasium—Sao Paulo , Brazil. 


Hours per week each year. 


ouujecis. 

First. 

Second. 

Third. 

Fourth. 

Fifth. 

Sixth. 

Arithmetic and algebra. 

4 

3 





Algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. 



4 

4 



Mechanics and astronomy..'. 





3 


Physics and chemistry. A. 





4 

3 

Geography. 

3 

3 

2 




Natural history and anthropology. 





2 

5 

Portuguese.1. 

3 

3 

2 

2 



French. 

4 

3 

2 

1 



Italian. . 

2 

2 

2 




English. 


3 

3 

2 

1 


Latin. 



3 

3 

3 


German. 




3 

3 

2 

Greek. 




3 

3 

3 

Literature. 





2 

2 

Universal history... 




3 

3 


Brazil history.. 






3 

Psychology and logic. 






6 

Drawing....~.. 

3 

2 

2 

2 



Gymnastics. 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Total hours per week. 

20 

20 

21 

24 

25 

25 


All subjects are required: there are no electives. The course leads to the bachelor’s degree or even the 
mastei ’s degree, and the students are nearly all boys who must have reached the age of 11 before entrance. 


Steps in the education system of Brazil. 


School or grade. 

Proximate ages. 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

_ fT?nre1 
















* 

Lower primary | TTrh * n . 



.. f Rnr il 




Upper primary {g rb ^- " ’ 





FiSc.ola complementer __ 

f" 



Normal school. 

{... 





Colleeio, gymnesin, lycen 







---I 

Private combined school. 

\... 





1 ' 1 1 | 

1- 




Medical school. 

1::: 










f... 









1 

Law school. 

\... 











Engineering school. 

f... 









-! | 


\... 










1 ! 1 1 1 


With the exception of law, each school or division given above has different lengths of courses, whether 
in rural, urban, or better city conditions. 

There is an age limit required on entering the normal schools of at least 14, in some States of 15. though 
the previous schooling required can be completed in five years. 


THE EDUCATION SYSTEM OF CHILE. 

GENERAL FEATURES. 

The Republic of Chile is composed of 23 Provinces and one Terri¬ 
tory (Magadanes). It consists of a narrow strip of land in south¬ 
western South America, from 50 to 250 miles wide (averaging about 
100 miles), and about 2,700 miles long, containing 289,829 square 
















































































































































CHILE. 


19 


miles. The population in 1920 (last census) is given as 3,754,723; 
male, 1,866,751; female, 1,887,972; or about 13 to the square mile. 
The estimated school population in 1920 was 750,000, with an enroll¬ 
ment in public and private schools of 401,171—-346,386 in the public 
primary schools and 54,785 in the private primary schools. In 1920 
there were 3,214 public primary schools and 7,361 teachers; 429 
private primary schools and 991 teachers; 15 public normal schools, 
with 2,206 students, which had increased to 2,346 in 1922, and 434 
teachers; 153 public and 139 private secondary schools, with 32,880 
and 20,006 students, respectively; 11 public commercial schools with 
176 teachers and 2,990 pupils; 7 vocational schools, including 28 
shops with 1,934 pupils, 541 boys and 1,393 girls. There were also 
71 agricultural schools and 8 evening schools for adults, with 1,248 
students, which were held in connection with the normal schools, 
and 26 others held in connection with the secondary schools. 

In the statistics of 1922 the public primary schools were given as 
3,317, an increase over 1920 of 103, with an enrollment in the month 
of August of 393,945 and an average attendance of 287,808. 

Owing to the great variation in climate, topography, and environ¬ 
mental conditions, it has been exceedingly difficult to develop a 
unified system of education, although the educational system of Chile 
is more centralized than that of any of the other South American 
republics. 

ADMINISTRATION. 

The system of public instruction of Chile includes the usual divi¬ 
sions of elementary, secondary, and higher education, and, with the 
exception of certain specialized schools, 1 is under the immediate 
direction of the Minister of Public Instruction and is practically 
uniform in organization throughout the Republic. Public education 
is free, supported by State and local authorities, and since August 
26, 1920, compulsory from 7 to 13, or until completing the fourth 
year of primary education. 

Private schools reaching about one-third the children in elementary 
education and nearly half those in secondary education are almost as 
important as the public schools. The greater number of private 
schools are conducted by orders of monks or nuns; but a few are under 
the direction of American missionary societies; others are conducted 
by German and other nationalities or by private Chilean citizens for 
gain. Since, in order to be admitted to the University of Chile or to 
enter a profession, it is necessary to pass the Government examina¬ 
tions, the courses of the private schools are modeled on the courses 
prescribed by the Chilean Government. These schools are likewise 

i schools of arts and trades, agricultural, mining, and professional schools for wcmen are controlled by 
the Ministry of Industry. The war college, military academy, school for noncommissioned officers, tech- 
nical profession and primary schools for enlisted personnel are under the Ministry of War. 




20 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


subject to Government inspection and control. Notwithstanding 
the centralized direction and control of the public-school system, 
there is still considerable individual variation in quality and practice 
of different schools throughout the Republic. 

ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 

The elementary schools are of two types: The ordinary primary 
schools, covering a course of four years, common throughout the 
rural and smaller urban districts; the superior primary schools, cover¬ 
ing a course of six years and found only in the better urban districts. 
The latter are usually superior in both quantity and quality of in¬ 
struction, though the curriculum covering the first four years is 
virtually the same as that of the ordinary primary school. The 
instruction of the primary schools is divided into grades of two years 
each, or two grades in the four-year primary and three grades in the 
six-year primary. There may be a fourth grade added to the latter, 
usually consisting of one year and covering courses in agriculture, 
mining, trades, business, or other practical subjects, depending on 
the part of the country where situated. There are also trade schools 
for both boys and girls and day and night schools for adults covering 
the first four grades of primary education. 

In certain cities—Talca, Linares, Cauquenes, Chilian, Concepcion, 
Lebu, Angol, and Temuco—the Government supports trade schools 
where women from 14 to 22 years of age are taught sewing, dressmak¬ 
ing, shirt and corset making, millinery, embroidering, drawing and 
painting, and cooking. Similar schools for boys (men) are main¬ 
tained, where various trades, as carpentering and bricklaying, 
are taught. The courses cover three years and require for entrance 
a knowledge of reading, writing, and the fundamentals of arithmetic, 
but in the absence of such knowledge the individual, if old enough, 
is permitted to enter and to be taught these simple fundamentals 
along with the industrial subjects. The aim of these schools seems 
to be to increase the vocational efficiency while decreasing the general 
illiteracy of the people. Weekly lectures are given throughout the 
entire course on morality, hygiene, domestic economy, and good 
manners. The teachers of these schools are required to have been 
educated in the normal schools for training primary teachers or 
similar institutions, and the graduates to have elementary education 
covering the first four years of the primary schools. The latter 
schools are sufficient to satisfy the requirement of compulsory 
education and tend to reduce the amount of illiteracy; the census of 
1907, the latest available, shows that only 42 per cent of the men and 
37.9 per cent of the women could read and write. 

There are also industrial, commercial, and agricultural schools of 
a more advanced nature fitting for foremen in business, industry, or 


CHILE. 


21 


agriculture. The course is of secondary nature,, covering six years 
primary and three years secondary. The courses are quite practical 
and aim to meet local needs. 

THE SCHOOL YEAR. 

The school year in Chile for schools of all kinds consists of 10 months 
of classes with long vacations. The school year begins March 1-10 
and ends January 1-10. There is usually a vacation of about 20 days 
in September and 3 days in Holy Week; the long vacation includes 
January and February. The school day in primary schools consists 
of five hours and the school week of five days—Wednesday and 
Saturday afternoons being holidays; the school day in secondary 
schools is six hours, and the school week consists of five and one-half 
or six days. The class period is from 30 to 50 minutes. The num¬ 
ber of credit hours carried per week varies from 20 to 36, in the 
primary schools the average being about 30 and in the secondary 
schools 33. 

SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

Secondary education in Chile is about equally divided between 
public and private institutions and covers the period between primary 
education on the one side and professional and higher education on 
the other. The principal public secondary schools are known as 
liceos and cover a course of three to six years. The best of these 
schools offer a six years’ course, based on either a four or six 
years’ primary course. The bachelor’s degree is granted to graduates 
of the public liceos or the private seminaries and institutos of corre¬ 
sponding rank. Graduates of these institutions are prepared for the 
matriculation examination to the university and better professional 
schools. 

As will be seen through reference to the accompanying graph and 
time-tables, the plan of secondary education in Chile is very different 
from that in the United States. The subjects of study are much the 
same, but in Chile there are no electives, each student is required 
to take every subject on the schedule. The methods of instruction, 
depending almost wholly on examination for promotion, are con¬ 
fined more to memoriter and less to laboratory and individual initia¬ 
tive of the pupils than in the corresponding grades of the United 
States; the number and variety of subjects studied and the number 
of class hours per week are greater in Chile. 

PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

As mentioned above, about half of the secondary education in 
Chile is under private direction. These schools are for the most 
part church schools. The courses of study are somewhat similar 
to the courses in the public schools, the students of both must pass 


22 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


the same examinations in order to enter a university or profession. 
The course is usually shorter than in the public liceo, with more 
attention given to religious instruction, more to language and liter¬ 
ature, less to science and mathematics, and on the whole better 
adapted as a fitting school to higher education as now constituted 
though not so well adapted as a finishing school to life. 

These schools vary in length and quality, but the usual length 
of the better private secondary schools (colegios, seminarios,institutos) 
is 9 or 10 years—1 year kindergarten, 3 years primary, and 6 years of 
the so-called secondary education. Graduates of the better of these 
private schools, as of the public six-year liceos leading to the bache¬ 
lor’s degree, are, under the United States accrediting system of pro¬ 
motion, usually granted, on entrance to higher institutions, credit 
equivalent to that of graduates of our senior high schools. In the 
main the quality of instruction is inferior to the better Government 
liceos. In both public and private education there are separate 
schools for boys and girls. The schools of the latter are quite similar 
to those of the former, especially in elementary education, except in 
the vocational, health, and physical education subjects. Most of 
the private secondary schools have a primary school attached and 
give both elementary (preparatory) and secondary instruction. 

QUALIFICATION AND SALARY OF TEACHERS. 

Provision is made in the school law for the qualifications and 
salaries of elementary and secondary teachers, who are required to 
be graduates of normal schools for the better positions in the sec¬ 
ondary schools. The supply of fully trained teachers, however, is 
not sufficient to meet the needs, and others are provided on examina¬ 
tion. There are also in many communities part-time teachers, 
lawyers, and others, who teach a few subjects in the school while 
carrying the work of their professions. The elementary teachers 
are divided into three classes, and provision is made for promotions. 
The salaries of these teachers are to be from 2,400 to 6,000 pesos per 
year (a peso represents normally about 20 cents United States 
currency, but at present only 10 to 11 cents). 

The teachers in the public 11 liceos” receive a salary of 750 pesos 
per month with a bonus of 30 per cent, which makes 995 pesos per 
month. Thus the salary of a secondary teacher is normally about 
$199 per month, but at present only about $103. After five years 
of service the teacher receives an increase equal to five-fortieths of 
his salary as service pay and thereafter one-fortieth additional for 
each year of service. In the private schools the teachers are paid 
about one-half as well as in the public schools. In the schools con¬ 
ducted by the religious orders the teachers are principally monks 
or nuns, who are members of the orders and receive no salary. In 


CHILE. 


23 


some religious schools, as the Seminary of Conception, the priests 
receive salaries. Aside from the Government professors (secondary 
teachers) the standard price for teaching seems to be about 5 pesos 
per hour. 

The normal schools provided for the training of elementary teachers 
have a course of six years, divided into three grades of two years 
each. They require for entrance completion of the 6 years of superior 
primary school, thus requiring of the candidate for graduation 12 
years of schooling, the same as the high schools of the United States. 
The course is considered slightly inferior to the course in the better 
public liceos, covering about the same subjects, however, with the 
addition of professional subjects and practice teaching. The salary 
of the teachers of the normal schools varies from 3,000 to 7,000 pesos 
yearly. Under the new law (1920) the teachers are to be paid 3,000 
pesos yearly for each chair or branch taught. This chair consists 
in from 6 to 11 hours of instruction per week, and no teacher can 
hold more than three chairs. Provision is also made for increase 
of pay on length of service. 

The Pedagogical Institute of Santiago, where most of the secondary 
teachers are trained, covers a course somewhat equivalent to the new 
teachers’ colleges in the United States—graduates are classed as 
Government professors. 

HIGHER EDUCATION. 

The only public university of Chile is that at Santiago, which has 
a school of medicine, law, engineering, pharmacy, architecture, 
dentistry, education (Institute of Pedagogy), and fine arts. There 
is also a private university (Catholic) at Santiago, which has a school 
of agriculture, law, mathematics, and architecture. There is another 
university and several professional schools at Concepcion, the Univer¬ 
sity of. Concepcion—a private institution founded in 1919 by the 
people of Concepcion with some aid from the Chilean Government. 
It has already organized the following schools: Pedagogy (English), 
dentistry, pharmacy, and industrial chemistry. Each of these 
schools offers a three years’ course. Entrance to the above institu¬ 
tions is on examination and covers about the amount of schooling 
offered in the liceos. The School of Naval Engineering of Talcahuano 
is the school where the engineer officers of the Chilean Navy are 
trained. It requires for entrance an examination which may be 
successfully passed after 9 or 10 years of schooling. The course 
covers five years and includes special attention to mechanical engineer¬ 
ing, drafting, and mathematics. It offers good courses in physics 
and chemistry and is specially strong in English. The course is 
directed toward the training of men for engineers on ships, but 
many of its graduates become engineers or architects in civil life. 


24 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


EDUCATION IN MAGALLANES. 

The Territory of Magallanes is larger than any of the Provinces, 
covering more than 65,000 square miles, though sparsely settled, 
containing about 30,000 inhabitants, 22,000 of whom reside in Punta 
Arenas. The instruction is confined to primary and secondary 
grades. There are 12 fiscal schools, supported by the national 
treasury, with an enrollment of 1,576, and 20 territorial schools, with 
an enrollment of 1,450. Private schools total 14, including one 
night school for boys and young men, with an enrollment of 350. 
The private day schools have an attendance of over 1,000. The 
census of children in the territory between the ages of 5 and 13 years 
shows 3,164 boys and 3,096 girls, a total of 6,260. 

Ten of the fiscal schools and eight of the territorial schools are in 
Punta Arenas. Of the 10 fiscal schools, 2 are superior primary and 
2 are lyceums for secondary instruction, 1 each for girls and the same 
number for boys. As in the Provinces the usual primary school 
(rural) covers a period of four years, the superior primary (better 
urban conditions) covers a period of six years, the lyceums (secondary 
schools) cover a period of four to six years. The best lyceums now 
in the territory cover but five years and accept for entrance pupils 
from the fourth and even from the third year primary school. There 
are no schools at present in Magallanes that extend the instruction 
beyond secondary education. For higher education one must go 
to other parts of Chile. 

PROMOTION SYSTEM. 

The system of public instruction in the Territory of Magallanes is 
identical with that followed in the Provinces of Chile, including the 
superior direction by the Ministry of Public Instruction. In the 
matter of promotions examinations play a more important roll than 
in corresponding positions in the United States. To illustrate, in 
the secondary schools examinations are conducted by boards of 
three graduate teachers named by the Minister of Public Instruction, 
and promotion is based on averages of grades in each study. The 
examinations in practically all studies are both oral and written, and 
the examiners record their decisions with balls of three colors, red, 
white, and black. The red ball signifies distinction and has a value 
of two points; the white ball signifies approbation and has a value 
of one point; the black ball signifies rejection and has no value. 
Pupils fail of promotion when there is recorded against them in two 
studies an average of at least two-thirds (two black balls and one 
white ball). Those who fail have the privilege of a second examina¬ 
tion at the opening of the next school year. The passing mark is 
usually low, in many cases not exceeding 40 per cent. 


CHILE 


25 


For more detailed information on the courses of study and steps 
in the process of education in the school system of Chile, see the 
accompanying graph and time-tables. 

Weekly schedule of secondary education, Liceo of Conception, Chile. 


Subjects. 


Penmanship and drawing.., 

Spanish. 

Mathematics. 

Natural science.. 

History and geography.. 

Singing and gymnasium_ 

Religion.. 

Manual training.. 

French.. 

English, German or Italian. 

Physics. 

Chemistry. 

Civics.. 

Philosophy. 


Total number of hours per week. 


Years of course and hours per week. 


Preparatory 
course. 


24 


H 


31 


Liceo proper. 


29 


30 


30 


32 


31 


33 


Weekly schedule of the principal private ( Catholic) secondary school—Extemado del Semi - 

nario de Concepcion — Chile. 


Hours per week each year. 


Subjects. 

Prepara¬ 

tory. 

Seminary. 

I 

n 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

Religion. 

6 

4 

4 

3 

3 

3 

2 

3 

Reading. 

3 

3 







Spanish. 

3 

3 

6 

6 

6 

6 

4 


French. 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

2 

6 

English. 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

5 


History 1 . 

16 

g 

8 

g 

6 

@ 

15 


Mathematics. 

6 

6 

6 

g 

g 

5 


Penmanship and drawing. 

3 

3 

3 

2 

2 

2 



Natural history. 





2 

2 

5 


Physics. 






2 

0 


Chemistry. 







2 

0 

Political economy. 







2 


Civics. 








4 

Physical geography. 








4 

Cosmography. 








4 

Philosophy. 








0 

Total hours per week. 

33 

33 

33 

33 

~ 5 E- 

33 

33 

33 

33 


1 History is combined with geography in the preparatory course, and the fifth year designated history is 
a course in history of literature. All students of the school have gymnasium together one hour per day 
throughout the course. 

The two time-tables just given represent fairly well the usual requirement in the better secondarv schools. 
The course is rather heavily loaded, the preparatory covering in two years the required four years primary, 
making it possible for bright students to complete the entire course in eight years. The courses fit for the 
university and professional schools and lead to the bachelor’s degree. 














































































26 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


Steps in the education system of Chile. 


School or grade. 

Proximate ages. 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

' 12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

1 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

Ordinary primary school 



















Superior primary school 



Private primary school, usually combined 
with private secondary schools (semi- 
nario) 

1 




Public secondary schools Hi coo) 







Government trade school (girls) 1 . 

r 






l 1 









Industrial school (boys) 3 . 

V- • 

r 














1 


Agricultural school. 

i- • 





i 







Normal schools (esonelas normalcs) 



- 






University: 

Pedagogy, pharmacy, dentistry - 














Medicine_ 















Law. 















Naval engineering._. 
























1 1 1 

i 


1 The usual length of the Government trade schools for girls is three years, but the ages of the student 
vary from 12 to 21 or older. Entrance requirements are shown elsewhere. 

2 An industrial school for adults (men) requires an age limit of 19 for entrance, though the scholarship 
requirement may be met by the five years primary or less. 


EDUCATION IN BOLIVIA. 

GENERAL STATEMENT. 

Bolivia consists of a great inland plateau, low alluvial plains, 
extensive swamps, and heavily timbered districts of west central 
South America. Its principal cities lie some 12,000 feet above the 
level of the sea, but many of the natives inhabit the lowlands to the 
south and east. The area of the Republic is 514,595 square miles, 
the population, census of 1900, was 1,744,568 (present estimate, 
1922, is 2,820,119) or about 3.4 (census) and 5.4 (present estimate) 
per square mile. Of the census population, 50.9 per cent were 
Indian, 26.7 per cent mestizos, 12.7 per cent white, 0.21 per cent 
negro, and 9.4 per cent unclassified. The small per cent of the 
ruling classes, the scattered and tribal condition of the masses, the 
lack of means of communication and transportation in rural districts, 
the great variety of topography and climate make the education of 
the people an exceedingly difficult problem. 

The language of the schools and of the country is Spanish, but there 
are at least three important native languages, Quichua, Aymard, 
and Guarani, which interfere with the introduction and general use 
of Spanish. 

There are no school-census statistics available, but according to 
the estimated population there must be over 300,000 children be¬ 
tween the ages of 7 and 15. From the official reports of 1922 the 
entire school attendance was given as 63,228: primary school attend¬ 
ance was 57,134; secondary, 3,343; special schools, 1,836; university, 











































































BOLIVIA. 


27 


915. The estimated per cent of illiteracy was given as about 85 per 
cent, found mostly in the rural districts among the native Indians 
and mixed races. 

There are both public and private schools, the latter of which are 
important, being patronized by the wealthier classes, who can afford 
the extra expense. The private schools are conducted mostly by 
convents and other religious organizations, missions, and the like. 
They are under Government supervision and are required to conform 
to the Government course of study, etc., but in many respects are 
considered to offer superior advantages to the public schools of the 
same community. Since the private schools present no new problems 
not covered in the public schools, principal attention has been given 
to a description of the public-school system. 

While in theory the Government Department of Education provides 
for the support of both rural and urban schools, in practice but little 
provision seems to have been made for education in rural districts, 
and the majority of children in school attendance are in the cities, 
representing probably less than 15 per cent of the population. The 
lack of provision for education in the rural districts is due to many 
causes: Lack of funds to support the entire school system; the 
scattered condition of the population (mostly Indian) in the rural 
districts; the indifference of the Indian parents to the education of 
their children and the belief among the upper classes that an educated 
Indian is unfitted for the work he is expected to do; the system of 
large landownership, immense estates worked by Indian tenants, 
the proprietor and family living in the city under more favorable 
opportunities of education. 

SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION. 

The school system of Bolivia is centralized and controlled by the 
Government under the immediate direction of the Minister of Public 
Instruction and Agriculture. Subject to the approval of the Presi¬ 
dent of the Republic, the minister appoints the inspectors general of 
primary and secondary schools, the directors of schools and rectors 
of universities, and special teachers from other countries who present 
documentary evidence of their competence and ability to teach in 
Bolivia. There are eight States or Departments, and under the decree 
of July 30, 1921, the school administration of each Department is 
directed by a university council composed of six members and the 
secretary general in the office of the university rector, as follows: 
President, the rector of the university of the Department; other 
members, the deans of the faculties of law and medicine; the director 
of the institute or normal school, if an}^; a director of other establish¬ 
ments, secondary, technical, or superior; a director of a public primary 


28 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


school; a director of a private colegio; and a representative of the 
students appointed by themselves who may or may not be a student 
of a public institution. In districts where but one or no faculty 
exists and wherein there is no normal school, the deans and directors, 
respectively, will be replaced by directors of other institutions, 
superior, secondary, or technical, and, in the absence of these, members 
appointed by the executive power. 

Each Department is organized as a separate educational district 
with the board of education (university council) at its head. The 
university councils acting under the authority of the Minister of 
Public Instruction and the Federal Government have control, direc¬ 
tion, and general supervision of all education in the departmental 
districts. There are subordinate boards of education, as the pro¬ 
vincial and municipal councils, through which the university councils 
may come into more direct touch with the people. But the principal 
units of action are the university councils which regulate the hours 
of school, distribute school material, supervise discipline, make 
annual reports of educational progress in the departments, approve 
school expenditures, and in general control the conduct of the school 
system of the departments, subject to the approval of the Minister 
of Education. 

PRIMARY EDUCATION. 

Primary education is free and, according to law, compulsory, though 
the provision is not as yet enforced. Owing to the lack of funds, 
there are but few properly fitted primary schools. Most primary 
education is given in rented buildings. 

Primary instruction is under the care of the municipalities and the 
State. The full course is six years, but in many localities a shorter 
course is given. In 1908 four years of primary education were 
required to fit for entrance into the colegios. This was increased to 
six in 1918, but was reduced to five in 1921 and still continues with 
that number. There are both urban and rural schools. It is the 
former that are being described; the latter are few and quite variant 
in length of course, subject matter, and quality of instruction. The 
school age, according to the law of 1908, begins at six years. In a 
few cities opportunity for kindergarten instruction preceding primary 
education is offered. The subjects covered in the first three years of 
primary work are reading, writing, arithmetic, drawing, music, 
physical exercise, elementary manual training; the next three years 
add physiology and hygiene, history, geography, and elementary 
science. 

In primary education boys and girls are provided for in separate 
schools. As a rule there are six hours in the school day and five and 


BOLIVIA. 


29 


half days per week, Saturday afternoon being a school holiday. 
There are few or no textbooks, all instruction in the primary schools 
being given orally by the teacher. Primary schools are also conducted 
by religious orders and by missions. 

SECONDARY EDUCATION. 

Secondary instruction is given in schools called “colegios nacionales 
or liceos,” which offer a six-year course based on five years of primary 
instruction for entrance, leading on graduation to the diploma of 
bachiller en ciencias or en letras (bachelor of science or letters) and 
fitting for entrance into the universities and professional schools. 
There are 14 Government colegios, 5 clerical institutions, and 5 
private liceos offering complete secondary instruction. 

Secondary instruction is neither free nor compulsory; there is an 
annual fee of 10 to 15 bolivianos (1 boliviano equals $0.39 gold). 
Textbooks are not common, as the teachers are in the habit of using 
the lecture method, but the students are required to keep notebooks 
covering the work of the entire year. Examinations are held on the 
completion of individual subjects and again on completing the entire 
six years’ course. The latter examination is conducted by three 
examiners in each subject who are appointed by the rector of the 
university, president of the university council, from the teachers of 
the different secondary schools of the city. As in primary education, 
most of the secondary schools are noncoeducational. In a few cities, 
however, coeducation is being tried in secondary schools. Girls 
are admitted to the examinations for the degree of bachiller, and if 
successful, are permitted to attend the university and special schools 
with the boys. A small number of girls are attending the schools of 
medicine and law, and a larger number attend the normal and com¬ 
mercial schools. The subjects of study are found under the time 
schedule. 

PREPARATION AND SALARY OF TEACHERS. 

In Bolivia there are five special normal schools for the training of 
teachers—three for the training of rural teachers, situated in appro¬ 
priate places, with special curricula to meet the needs of the rural 
communities; one for urban teachers at Sucre, and one for the train¬ 
ing of teachers for secondary, normal, and commercial schools, called 
the “ Institute Normal Superior,” at La Paz. The requirements for 
entrance to all the normal schools except the last are similar to those 
for the secondary schools. The course may be a year less and not as 
strong academically, but offers work in theory and practice of teach¬ 
ing. Graduates of the superior normal school receive the title of 
54894 °— 23 - 3 


30 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


normal professor; those of the urban normal school, normal master; 
and those of the rural normal schools, rural preceptor. 

The average salary of the regular teachers in the primary schools 
is about 2,000 bolivianos per year, corresponding at normal exchange to 
1778; at present exchange to about $600. The highest-paid teachers 
in the primary schools receive 2,880 bolivianos, the lowest 1,200. 
The principals of primary schools receive an average of about 3,600 
bolivianos, and the highest are paid 4,800. 

In the secondary schools, the average salary is about 2,800 bolivi¬ 
anos, the highest 3,000 and the lowest 2,400. Teachers of special 
subjects through teaching in several schools simultaneously may 
receive larger salaries. Principals or directors of secondary schools 
receive an average salary of about 5,400 bolivianos. 

The average salary of professors in the professional, technical, and 
normal schools is about 2,800 bolivianos, the highest 3,600 and the 
lowest 2,400. Many of the teachers of the secondary and higher 
schools devote but part time to teaching, while pursuing the regular 
activities of their profession or business. The professor in a law 
school averages two hours of teaching a day; in the normal, medical, 
and other professional schools, about three hours. 

Pensions are paid to those teachers in the Government public 
schools who have been employed for 25 consecutive years, or 35 
nonconsecutive years. The pensions are 100 per cent of their last 
salary. Those who have rendered service as teachers for at least 10 
years have a right to pensions if they become physically incapaci¬ 
tated, and receive two-thirds of the salary of their last post, pro¬ 
vided they have held this post for three years or shall have been 
promoted from the next lower position. Those who have taught 
10 years who shall have attained the age of 65 years are pensioned 
with half the salary of their last post. 

SPECIAL SCHOOLS. 

There are a number of special schools of both secondary and 
university rank. The former, however, do not prepare for university 
entrance, but for various lines of commerce and industry. They 
offer work of secondary rank, but usually less academic and more 
technical, and in some cases prepare for higher technical schools of 
university rank. There are commercial schools, a school of mines, 
a manual training school, conservatories of music, and professional 
schools for girls which teach largely sewing and domestic science. 
The tuition is the same as that of the secondary schools. The school 
year is from January to October, covering 36 weeks of work. Exami¬ 
nations are held from the 10th to the 25th of October. 


BOLIVIA. 


31 


HIGHER EDUCATION. 


There are three universities in Bolivia, one at La Paz, with faculties 
of medicine, law, theology, pharmacy, dentistry, and commerce; 
another at Sucre, with faculties of medicine, law, theology, and 
pharmacy; a third at Cochabamba, with faculties of law and theology. 
There are separate faculties of law at Oruro, Potosi, Santa Cruz, and 
Tarija, and a faculty of theology at Santa Cruz. There is a Govern¬ 
ment mining school, including the beginning of an engineering 
school, at Oruro; an institute of agronomy, a school of commerce and 
surveying, and a trade school at Cochabamba; a commercial institute, 
a military school, two trade schools, and a conservatory of music 
at La Paz. 

Formerly to enter the law school the double diplomas, bachelor 
of science and of letters, were required, now (1922) one of the degrees 
is sufficient; but one is also necessary to enter schools of medicine, 
pharmacy, dentistry, commerce, civil and mining engineering. The 
school of dentistry offers a course of three years; midwifery, three 
years; pharmacy, four years; medicine, seven years; law, five 
years; commerce, two and three years. There is growing interest 
in the secondary and higher education of women, and added pro¬ 
vision is being made in coeducation. Students of merit are frequently 
sent abroad by the Government to complete their education. Foreign 
teachers are sometimes engaged as supervisors, principals, or teachers 
of special subjects. 


Schedule of the public secondary school of Bolivia. 


Subjects. 


Required. 


Spanish language and literature. 

Mathematics—arithmetic, algebra, geometry. 

History. 

Geography. 

Natural history. 

Physics. 

Chemistry and mineralogy. 

Moral instruction and philosophy. 

French or English. 

English or French. 

Drawing and penmanship. 

School games and gymnastics. 


Manual training. 

Music and singing ... 
Religious instruction. 


Total required hours per week. 


Hours per week each year. 1 


III. 


28 


32 


VI. 


Total. 


1 The class period or hour varies from 30 to 45 minutes and the school year from 32 to 40 weeks, averaging 
36 weeks. 


































32 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


Steps in the education system of Bolivia . 


School or grade 

Proximate ages. 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

Rural primary school. 



















Urban primary school. 

. 







Secondary school (public colegio)_ 






School of commerce. 











School of law. 

}:: 













School of pharmacy. 

1 -- 













School of dentistry. 














School of medicine. 




























EDUCATION IN COLOMBIA. 

GENERAL STATEMENT. 

All statistics of the country are but estimates and vary consider¬ 
ably with the reports of different writers. Owing to boundary 
disputes with neighboring Republics, the estimated area of Colombia 
varies from between 440,000 to 477,000 square miles, and the esti¬ 
mates of population vary frotn about five to six millions or more. 
The census taken in 1871 showed a population of 2,951,323, of which 
10 per cent were white, 15 per cent Indian, 40 per cent mestizos, and 
35 per cent Negroes and their mixture with the other races. 

There is no school census available, and the statistics of school 
attendance at hand are but estimates. The school age is from 7 to 
15, between these ages there must be at least 600,000 to 700,000 
children. The estimate of enrollment in all public and private schools 
for 1919 was 364,573, with an attendance of 304,690. The number 
of primary schools was 5,633, with an enrollment of 336,882 and an 
attendance of 279,717; secondary schools 278, with an enrollment of 
22,216 and an attendance of 20,135; professional schools 38, with an 
enrollment of 3,732 and an attendance of 3,310; industrial schools 40, 
with an enrollment of 1,743 and an attendance of 1,528. 

With extended coast lines, broad wooded plains and pasture lands, 
high plateaus, and inaccessible mountain regions, the topography and 
climate of Colombia are unusually varied. For this reason, coupled 
with the undeveloped state and lack of appropriate means of com¬ 
munication, the country has made but little progress in education. 
The total isolation of communities, Provinces, and Departments from 
one another tends to develop local interests and to interfere with the 
development of a national system of education. The natural 
resources of the country are great, and the intelligence of the leaders 
above question, but the condition of education is disappointing. 


























































BOLIVIA. 


33 


The illiteracy is large (between 80 and 90 per cent), and, with the 
exception of a few of the larger cities and more favored communities, 
no adequate provision has been made for the education of the people. 

SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION. 

At the head of the education system of Colombia, acting in behalf 
of and amenable to the National Government, is the Minister of 
Public Instruction, with large executive and appointive powers. 
He is one of the eight cabinet officers and exercises supervision and 
control over the public schools, high schools, colleges, and special 
institutes, as the National School of Commerce, the National School 
of Fine Arts, and the National Academy of Music. He is also in 
charge of the national library, the national museum, and the astro¬ 
nomical observatory; and intervenes in matters of health with sani¬ 
tary and public health boards. Agricultural education and most of 
industrial and commercial education, however, are directed by the 
Department of Agriculture and Commerce, the head of which is also 
a cabinet officer. 

There is also a national council of education. At the head of 
each of the 14 State departments is the director general of public 
instruction, and at the head of school affairs in the territories is a 
school inspector or supervisor. There are local, departmental, and 
national school inspectors, and municipal boards of education. The 
Departments and municipalities, as well as private individuals, can 
maintain establishments of primary and secondary education, but 
both public and private secondary schools must conform to regu¬ 
lations and apply to the Ministry of Public Instruction for the right 
to issue the diploma of bachiller (bachelor). 

SCHOOL YEAR. 

The school year extends from the first of February to the first or 
last of November, with a number of church holidays. The school 
year covers about nine months of 5J days per week, 22 days per 
month, 3 to 5 hours per day. 

PRIMARY EDUCATION. 

Primary education is gratuitous but not compulsory. Boys and 
girls are provided for in separate schools or at different times of the 
day in the same school. Since primary education is largely a depart¬ 
mental matter and differs somewhat among the Departments, the 
statements here are confined to the Department of Magdalena (Santa 
Marta), which is typical of the average condition. 


34 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


There are two courses of study, one for rural schools and the other 
for urban schools. In the rural schools are two plans—the one called 
“ alternate,” whereby boys attend each day from 7 to 10 a. m. and 
girls from 12 to 3 p. m.; the other, in which separate schools are 
maintained for each sex. In urban conditions there are separate 
schools for each sex, the course of study being divided into three parts, 
called elementary, intermediate, and superior. The hours of instruc¬ 
tion are from 8 to 11 a. m. and from 2 to 4 p. m. The length of the 
course in both rural and urban schools is three years; but very few 
children, especially in rural communities, continue in school for three 
years, and more than half of the children throughout the Republic 
do not attend school at all. Monthly ratings of the pupils based on 
class work are provided, but promotions from grade to grade and at 
the end of the course are based on formal, public examinations by an 
examining board at the close of the school year and on the completion 
of the primary course. Few, if any, of the graduates of the primary 
schools enter the secondary schools for further education, which would 
be possible only on meeting the required matriculation examination. 

About equal provision in primary education is made for both boys 
and girls, and the attendance does not vary much between the sexes. 
Of primary education three-fourths or more is publicly provided and 
less than one-fourth privately provided; in secondary education the 
proportion is changed, only about one-third of the secondary schools 
being publicly provided and two-thirds being maintained by private 
venture—church or lay. Less than half of the school buildings are 
municipally owned, the majority being rented for school purposes and 
poorly adapted to such needs. Subjects of study in rural schools are 
reading, writing, arithmetic, religion, geography, good manners, 
sewing, and less arithmetic for girls; in urban schools, religion, reading, 
writing, drawing, singing, object lessons, calisthenics, arithmetic, 
sewing for girls, geography, and history of Colombia, elementary 
science, and notions of physics. 

SECONDARY EDUCATION. 

Secondary education is under the immediate direction and control 
of the National Government. It is given in Governmental normal 
schools, of which there are usually two in each Department, one for boys 
and one for girls; colegios, liceos, and institutos. The latter insti¬ 
tutions have sprung up as special fitting schools for higher and pro¬ 
fessional education, and are all pay schools (open to both interns and 
externs) attended by ambitious students of the better classes. The 
usual type is the national colegio, which usually maintains both 
primary and secondary courses; the former of three or four years and 
the latter of five or six years, the entire course of nine years leading, 


COLOMBIA. 


35 


on successful examination, to the bachelor’s degree in letters or science. 
This is the usual form of secondary education and is quite distinct 
from and independent of the primary schools. The time element 
leading to the bachelor’s degree is three years short of that required 
for graduation from our high schools, but the pupils are, on beginning, 
probably a year older, of a selective class, and the subject matter, in 
some lines, is more extended, though considerably less so in others. 

The secondary schools are usually divided into two classes, espe¬ 
cially during the later years of the course, technical and classical. 
The course of the former includes more of science and mathematics; of 
the latter, more of language, philosophy, and the humanities. The 
technical course leads to the degree bachiller en ciencias (bachelorof 
science), the classical course leads to the degree bachiller en letras 
(bachelor of letters). Both courses cover nine years of schooling and 
are considered of about equal rank. In some instances they are com¬ 
bined, at least for the first four years of the colegio; one such schedule 
(the National School of Commerce, Bogota) is submitted herewith. 
The normal schools are maintained primarily for the training of pri¬ 
mary teachers, but they also furnish secondary education to boys and 
girls who have no thought of becoming teachers. They require for 
entrance the same preparation as the colegios and, as the other Gov¬ 
ernment secondary schools, offer a five years’ course leading on gradu¬ 
ation to a teacher’s diploma. Owing to the attention given to 
professional subjects, the normal schools are not considered of equal 
academic rank with the national colegios. 

HIGHER EDUCATION. 

There are two Federal institutions of college rank, the National 
University of Bogota, with schools of law, medicine, dentistry, and 
engineering; and the National School of Mines of Medellin. There are 
also a number of State or Departmental universities, as follows: The 
University of Bolivar, at Cartagena; the University of Antioquia, and 
the recently founded (1919) Women’s University, at Medellin; the 
University of Narino, at Pasto; the University of Cauca, at Popavan; 
and the University of Magdalena, at Santa Marta. In Bogota, the 
capital, are also National schools of agriculture, fine arts, and the con¬ 
servatory of music. Entrance to the above universities is on examin¬ 
ation after graduation from the colegios or secondary schools. 


36 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA, 


Weekly schedule of the Government normal schools. 


Hours per week each year. 1 


Subjects. 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

Total. 

Literary. 

Religion... 

3 

3 

2 

2 

2 

12 

Pedagogy: 

Theory. 


1 

3 

3 

3 

10 

Practice. 


1 

3 

5 

6 

15 

Spanish and rhetoric. 

6 

5 

4 

3 

3 

21 

French. 

3 

3 

3 

2 

1 

12 

English. 



3 

3 

2 

8 

Geography. 

3 

3 

2 

2 

1 

11 

History (Colombian and universal). 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

11 

Writing. 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

8 

Drawing. 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

10 

Science. 

Arithmetic. 

3 

3 

2 

2 

2 

12 

Bookkeeping. 



2 

2 

2 

6 

Geometry. 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

8 

Physics and chemistry. 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

8 

Biology: 

Hygiene, agriculture, horticulture, etc. 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

8 

Practice, gardening, etc. 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

5 

Manual work (for girls). 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

10 

Civics and political economy (boys). 






Domestic science (girls). 


1 

1 

1 

3 

Music. 

3 

3 

2 

2 

2 

12 

Calisthenics. 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

10 







Total hours per week and course. 

37 

37 

44 

42 

40 

200 



1 The usual length of the recitation period is 50 minutes, but the numbers of hours per week are double 
those permitted in corresponding grades in the United States. 


Weekly schedule of colegio, 1 combined course—technical and classical. 


Hours per week each year. 


Subjects. 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

Total. 

Letters. 








Religion. 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

12 

Spanish language and literature. 

3 

5 

5 

5 

2 

2 

22 

Geography and cosmography. 

2 

2 

2 




6 

Colombian and general history. 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

12 

Penmanship... 

2 

2 

2 




0 

Drawing. 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

6 

French. 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

18 

English. 



3 

3 

3 

3 

12 

Latin. \ . 





2 

1 

3 

Philosophy: Logic and metaphysics. 





3 

3 

6 

Science. 







Mathematics: 








Arithmetic. 

6 

4 

4 




14 

Accounting. 




3 



3 

Algebra. 




3 

3 

3 

9 

Geometry. 


1 

2 

2 

9 

3 

10 

Natural science: 







Zoology and botany. 

2 

2 

2 




6 

Mineralogy and geology. 





2 

2 

4 

Physical science: 








Chemistry. 


1 

1 

3 

3 

3 


Physics and cosmography. 


1 

1 

4 

4 

4 

14 

Total hours per week and course. 

23 

26 

30 

31 

32 

32 

174 


1 It will be noted that there are fewer recitation periods in the six years cologio than in the five years nor¬ 
mal school. Thelength of the recitation periods is thesame in either case, between 45 and 60 minutes. 















































































ECUADOR. 


37 


Steps in the education system of Colombia. 


School or grade. 

Proximate ages. 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 ! 

19 

20 

21 

Primary schools: 

Rural. 

/ 



__ 






III 

illl 





Urban. 

- 





Secondary schools: 

Separate 

I--- 



P.mnhinpH wjth primary 





1 




University: 

Law faculty. 










Dentistry. 










— _ _ 

Medical faculty. 

(. . 









\{ 


; 






r 










1 I ' 


The usual length of both rural and urban schools is three years, 
divided into elementary, intermediate, and superior grades. Promo¬ 
tion from grade to grade both in the primary and secondary schools 
is the result of a public examination by the government examining 
board. 


EDUCATION IN ECUADOR. 

GENERAL STATEMENT. 

Ecuador, crossed by the equator, from which it derives its name, 
lies between latitude 2° north and 6° south. It is bounded on the 
north by Colombia, east by Brazil and Peru, south by Peru, and west 
by the Pacific Ocean. It is also crossed from north to south by the 
Andes Mountains, separating within the Republic into two distinct 
ranges, with a high plateau of table land between them. The country 
may be divided into three distinct sections—-the coast, west from the 
foothills of the Andes to the Pacific Ocean; the inter-Andean, em¬ 
bracing the mountains and the interlying plateaus and valleys; and 
the trans-Andean country. Thus situated in the heart of the tropics, 
with virtually no change of season, neither winter nor summer, but 
with all degrees of elevation from the low coastal marshes to the per¬ 
petually snow-crowned peaks of the Andes; few, if any, countries 
of the world possess greater variety of climatic and topographical con¬ 
ditions; the heat of the tropics to the frigidity of the perpetually 
snow-capped Andes can be experienced by a short journey inland. 
These different elevations of temperature, uniform within narrow 
limits, affect the life, habits, industry, and education of the people. 

The area of Ecuador is usually given as 116,000 square miles, 
though more than twice as much is claimed, owing to boundary 
disputes. The estimated population varies considerably with the 
different estimates, but is more frequently given (1923) as about 
2,000,000 inhabitants, divided in the proportion of 60 per cent Indian, 







































38 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


30 per cent mestizos, 7 per cent white, 3 per cent negro and mulatto. 
There is no census directory of the number of children of school age, 
but from the school report of 1922 the following items are of interest: 
The number of pupils enrolled in primary education is 108,920 
(60,712 boys and 48,208 girls); the number in attendance, 93,865 
(52,493 boys and 41,372 girls); the number of schools, 1,718 (State 
1,374, municipal 159, private 185); the number of teachers in these 
schools, 2,548 (1,075 men and 1,473 women). The different types of 
primary schools were given as follows: Advanced, 47 (23 boys and 
24 girls); intermediate, 333 (183 boys and 150 girls); elementary, 
1,338 (453 boys, 451 girls, 434 mixed). Of the 2,548 teachers in the 
primary schools, 222 are normal-school graduates, 263 are of the first 
class, 120 of the second class, 1,003 of the third class, and 940 without 
title or permanent certificate. In 1919 there were 15 national cole- 
gios (national secondary schools)—one for each Province—with an 
enrollment of 1,639 students; and three universities, one at Quito, 
one at Guayaquil, and one at Cuenca, with a total enrollment of 744 
students. 

Public primary education is secular, free, and according to law 
compulsory between the ages of 6 and 12. There are the usual three 
divisions of education—primary, secondary, and higher. The Gov¬ 
ernment supports and directs all, but principal attention is given to 
primary education. Each rural parish is required to maintain at 
least one school for boys and one for girls, and, if 20 children are 
found to live 5 or more kilometers from the center of the parish a 
mixed school will be established in the neighborhood; if 40 children 
are so situated, two schools will be established, one for boys and one 
for girls. The primary schools are of three types—elementary or 
one-teacher schools; intermediate or schools having two or more 
teachers; and superior having five or more teachers and offering 
work covering the fourth to the eighth grades inclusive. The first 
two are far more common and more representative of the public- 
school system. 

The length of the school year is given as 36 weeks, of 5 days per 
week (Thursday and Saturday afternoons and Sunday are school 
holidays), and 4 to 6 hours per day. The vacation period in the 
interior Provinces follows the yearly examinations, which occupy the 
whole month of July; in the coastal Provinces the yearly examinations 
fall in the month of January and the annual vacation follows in Feb¬ 
ruary and March. 

SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION. 

The authorities in school administration are as follows: 

1. The Superior Council, composed of the Minister of Public In¬ 
struction, president; the rector of the University of Quito; a delegate 


ECUADOR. 


39 


elected by the universities of Guayaquil and Cuenca, and the faculty 
of law at Loja; the rector of the institute “Mejia,” and the director 
of instruction for the province of Pichincha. 

2. The Minister of Public Instruction. 

3. The provincial school council, composed of the director of 
instruction, chairman; two secondary-school teachers from the capi¬ 
tal of the Province, named by the respective administrative board; 
and two citizens named by the county government. 

4. The directors of instruction and their deputies are responsible 
for school management, hygiene, attendance, and have authority to 
compel country magnates to maintain schools on their estates. 

5. The school visitors. The number is determined by the superior 
council and nominated by the respective provincial schools councils, 
with authority over public primary schools, municipal and private 
schools, schools of art and commerce, orphanages, etc. 

6. Rectors of universities and colegios. 

7. The administrative boards. 

8. The university faculties. 

9. The parochial boards of inspectors, consisting of three responsi¬ 
ble householders in each parish, who report monthly on the conduct 
of the teachers, indicate where schools ought to be established, and 
give all necessary information to the directors of instruction. 

The school law assigns to each of the above bodies the usual func¬ 
tions of such officers and places the sole responsibility for the ad¬ 
ministration of the function on the particular body concerned. 

The superior council is at the head of the entire school system 
and in conjunction with the Minister of Education has control of all 
education; issues and approves regulations, and authorizes the crea¬ 
tion of colegios, training and special schools; appoints rectors of 
colegios; nominates provincial directors of instruction; elects uni¬ 
versity professors and secondary school teachers; grants degrees and 
prizes to authors; decides legal difficulties; prepares programs and 
approves estimates, methods, textbooks, etc. The Minister of Edu¬ 
cation has also independent functions, as promoting public libraries, 
museums, natural history collections, and other educational insti¬ 
tutions; organizing teachers’ conferences; preparing educational bills 
for the presentation to Congress, etc. 

The provincial educational council, subordinate to the Superior 
Council, stands in the same relation to the province as that of the 
Superior Council to the Nation. Among its expressed duties are to 
nominate in January of each year school visitors of the Province and 
to remove for cause the same; to require the fulfillment of the laws, 
decrees, and regulations concerning public primary instruction; to 
see to establishing necessary schools; to license the establishment 
of private schools; to examine, license, appoint and remove primary 


40 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


teachers; to supervise primary schools, establish adult evening schools; 
to formulate budgets and control finance, etc. The directors of 
instruction, like the Minister of Education, have separate functions of 
their own and must possess the qualification required of candidates 
for rectors of schools of secondary education to be eligible to appoint¬ 
ment. They are also required to give undivided attention to the 
service of the office. 

PRIMARY EDUCATION. 


As mentioned above, there are three types of primary schools— 
elementary, intermediate, and superior. About 78 per cent of all 
primary schools are of the first type, 19 per cent of the second, and 
3 per cent of the third. The elementary primary may be found in 
any part of the country, but it is almost the only school found in 
rural conditions. It covers at least the lowest section—first and 
second grades—and may on permission carry the work of the middle 
and upper sections, in which case but one grade of the middle and 
upper sections can be carried at the time, as shown in the time 
schedule herewith presented. The intermediate primary in most 
cases covers the full six grades and leads on examination to entrance 
in the normal schools and colegios. The compulsory age is from 6 
to 12, which is covered by the intermediate school. The superior 
primary, which must have at least one teacher for each grade, covers 
five years, or the fourth to the eighth grades, inclusive. For entrance 
into the superior primary pupils must be 9 years old and have satis¬ 
factorily passed the first three grades of primary education. Mixed 
schools are rare and found only in rural communities where the 
limited number of children does not justify two schools. Mixed 
schools are invariably taught by women teachers. 


Weekly schedule of a one-teacher elementary primary school (boys). 


Subjects. 

Lowest section. 

Middle 

section. 

Upuer 

section. 

First 

grade. 

Second 

grade. 

Moral and civic instruction. 




9 

Spanish language. 

10 

4 

10 

.. 

Z 

Arithmetic. 

4 


7 

Geometry. 



4 

4 

History. 



4 


Physical and natural sciences. 



2 

o 

Study of the surroundings. 

Opnora nhv 



2 

Z 




1 

2 

Writing. 



9 

1 

i 

Physical exercise. 

2 

o 

o 

1 

Drawing. 


L 

Z 

2 

2 

o 

Manual training. 

2 

2 


Z 

Dressmaking 1 . 



2 

2 

Total. 


1 Q 




io 

lo 

24 

28 


i The corresponding girls’ school and mixed school are similar throughout with the exception of manual 
timely aKerSn^ dressmakmg for girls - Both ^ddle and upper sections carry but one grade eSh at a 





























ECUADOR. 


41 


Weekly schedule of the intermediate primary (hoys). 


Subjects. 

Hours per week each year. 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

Moral and civic instruction. 




2 

2 

Spanish language, reading, etc. 

10 

9 

7 | 

7 

5 

5 

Arithmetic. 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

Geometry. 





2 

2 

History. 




1 

2 

2 

Physical and natural science. 




2 

4 

4 

Study of the environment. 



3 | 




Geography. 




1 

2 

2 

Singing. 



i 

1 

1 

1 

Physical exercise. 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

Writing. . . 


2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

Drawing. 


1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Manual training (bovs). 

2 

2 

2 

j 2 

2 

2 

Dressmaking ( girls'! i__ ... 







Total. 

18 

20 

24 

1 24 

30 

30 


1 The intermediate school for girls is similar in subject matter and time requirement to that for boys 
with the exception of dressmaking, which is substituted for manual training. 


STATUS AND SALARY OF TEACHERS. 

There are three normal schools in Ecuador—One at Guayaquil 
for girls; two at Quito, one for boys and one for girls. Entrance to 
the normal schools is based on graduation from the sixth-grade 
primary. The course covers five years, four years of academic 
studies and a fifth year devoted to the theory and practice of educa¬ 
tion. As indicated above less than 9 per cent of the primary teachers 
of all grades are normal-school graduates; the rest have obtained 
certificates on examination or are teaching on emergency certificates. 

The primary teaching force is divided into three classes—First, 
second, and third grades, respectively, corresponding to the three 
types of schools, superior, intermediate, and elementary. The 
public-school teachers are appointed by the provincial school council 
on the basis of a competitive examination. To be eligible to the 
examination they must meet the following requirements: (1) Be 
21 years of age; (2) present a teacher’s diploma granted by com¬ 
petent authority; (3) furnish a medical certificate of good health 
and freedom from incurable or contagious malady or physical defects 
which tend to incapacitate. Teachers with normal certificates will 
be given preference. If in case two or more applicants with normal 
certificates present themselves, choice will be made of the one best 
qualified for the work. 

The minimum annual salary of the teachers who direct a school of 
the third class will be 360 sucres (the sucre in normal exchange is 
equivalent to 48.7 cents United States currency); of an intermediate 
school, 480 sucres; and of a superior school, 720 sucres. The salary 
of assistant teachers will not be less than two-thirds of the salary 
assigned to the principal teachers, and in no case will they receive 
less than 360 sucres. The salary of teachers, however, varies con¬ 
siderably in different communities and in different institutions. 






























42 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


SECONDARY EDUCATION. 

Besides the 15 national colegios, secondary schools proper, there 
are a number of other private secondary schools and special schools 
covering secondary subjects. The complete course of the secondary 
schools (colegios nacionales) is of six years in length and leads on 
completion to the degree of bachelor of philosophy and entrance to 
the higher professional courses of the universities. It is divided 
into two sections of three years each, a lower and a higher. To 
enter the lower section the pupil must be 12 years old, must have 
finished the six years of the primary school, and pass an entrance 
examination. To enter the higher section he must have completed 
the course of the lower. The subjects of the lower section are: 
Spanish grammar, history, geography, arithmetic, literature, French, 
English, bookkeeping, hygiene, shorthand, and notions of astronomy. 
The subjects of the higher section are: Mathematics, history, logic, 
psychology, ethics, biology, chemistry, physics, geology, drawing, 
languages, and pedagogy. Courses in commerce may be substituted 
in the secondary schools, including surveying, agriculture, telegraphy, 
p edagogy, etc. Those who obtain the degree bachelor of philosophy 
have the right to be granted the first-grade teacher’s certificate. 

HIGHER EDUCATION. 

Higher education is offered in the Central University of Quito 
(founded in 1787), the universities of Guayaquil and Cuenca, and in 
the law school of Loja. The University of Quito includes the following 
faculties: Jurisprudence and sociology; medicine, surgery, pharmacy, 
dentistry; pure and applied science; mathematical, physical, and 
natural science; philosophy and literature. The two universities of 
Guayaquil and Cuenca possess faculties of medicine, pharmacy, and 
jurisprudence. Students to enter the faculties of law and medicine 
must hold the degree of bachelor of philosophy, which is granted on 
graduation from the six years’ colegio; for other faculties a special 
diploma of less requirement is sufficient. The rectors of universities 
and colegios are appointed for four-year terms; the latter must be 
over 30 years of age, a layman of good conduct, and hold a degree 
of bachelor of philosophy; the former, in addition to these qualifica¬ 
tions, must possess the doctor’s degree in one of the above-mentioned 
faculties. Professors on the staff are appointed for 10 years; interim 
professors for four years. Professors and teachers who have served 
for 15 years have the right to retire on half pay; after 25 years, on 
full pay, or on pension equal to their last annual salary. Writing an 
acceptable textbook adds from one to five years toward the pension 
period according to its importance. The universities are now coeduca¬ 
tional. 


ECUADOR. 


43 


The 744 university students for the year 1920 were distributed as 
follows: Law, 297; medicine, 261; science, 69; pharmacy, 46; den¬ 
tistry, 37; obstetrics, 23; nursing, 11. The State supports univer¬ 
sity instruction by an annual subsidy of 80,000 sucres, which, added 
to the other revenue assigned to this branch, amounts to a total of 
641,335.57 sucres. There are at Quito a military school; the National 
Conservatory of Music; the National Academy of Fine Arts; and 
a well-equipped vocational school, offering courses in typography, 
binding, photogravure, carriage manufacture, carpentry, mechanics, 
shoemaking, saddlery, tailoring, engraving, tanning, and ceramics. 
There are also vocational schools at Tulcan and Portoviejo: a Gov¬ 
ernment agricultural school at Ambato; a national library and an 
astronomical laboratory in Quito. 

FORWARD MOVEMENTS. 


There is growing interest in vocational education, including 
industry, commerce, agriculture, and physical welfare; in creating 
new normal schools and a school of education, in connection wfith the 
reorganized faculty of philosophy and letters of the Central Univer¬ 
sity, for more efficient training of secondary teachers. The Govern¬ 
ment is interested in and supports a number of scholarships, granted 
to meritorious students to he used in further study both at home and 
abroad. Quite a number of foreign teachers have been called to 
assist in building up a more modern school system. Fourteen Ger¬ 
man professors were contracted with at the end of December, 1921, 
and 11 at the end of January of 1922 for positions in the two normal 
schools in Quito. The contracts cover five years, and all the professors 
began work in March. 

Steps in the education system of Ecuador. 


Proximate ages. 


School or grade. 


Primary school: 

Elementary. 

Intermediate. 

Superior. 

Normal school * 1 * * . 

Secondary school (colegio), lower section. 
Secondary school (colegio), upper section 
Secondary school (colegio), combined.... 


7 

8 

9 

10 









{: 


I I I I I 


i The scholastic requirement for entrance to the normal school is completion of the six years primary 

school, 6 but there is also an age 1 imit of 17, which accounts for the blank space in the chart between the closing 

of the primary and the beginning of the normal. 



















































44 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


* EDUCATION IN PARAGUAY. 

GENERAL STATEMENT. 

Paraguay is one of the two inland republics of South America. It 
is surrounded by the three important Republics of Argentina, Brazil, 
and Bolivia, with which its education system has many points in 
common, though not so advanced nor so well organized. The area 
of Paraguay is given (1921) as 196,000 square miles (there are still 
important boundary disputes with Bolivia), and the population 
(estimated) as 1,000,000, or 5.1 persons per square mile. In climate 
it is subtropical. The southern two-thirds lies within the Temperate 
Zone, and the northern one-third lies within the Tropical Zone. The 
topography of the country, low in the south and elevated (moun¬ 
tainous) in the north, is such as to produce, in the main, a healthful 
climate. The more settled parts of the Republic lie east of the 
Paraguay River, while to the west is a part of the Gran Chaco regions 
or grass-covered plains. The luxuriant growth of timber and native 
products have not been conducive to education and industry. 

The large majority of the inhabitants are Indian (principally 
Guarani) and mestizos. The white population represents from 6 to 
8 per cent, made up of the following peoples in the order named: 
Argentines, Italians, Brazilians, Spanish, German, French, Uruguay¬ 
ans, English. These live principally in Asuncion, the capital, and 
in the larger cities. There are the usual three diyisions of educa¬ 
tion—primary, secondary, and professional. 

SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION. 

Under the President of the Republic as one of the five cabinet 
members is the Minister of Justice, Worship, and Public Instruction. 
The minister has the administration of justice and all matters per¬ 
taining thereto; the supervision of the Roman-Catholic churches 
and clergy; the charge and direction of all public and private 
schools as well as special institutions, such as the National University, 
the School of Agriculture, the National Library, the National Museum, 
the School of Arts and Crafts, the Industrial School, the civil register 
for the registration of births, deaths, marriages, and the preparation 
of vital statistics. 

Acting under and in conjunction with the Minister of Public 
Instruction is the national council of education, which acts as the 
functioning body of all education. Next under the national council 
of education and directly subject to it are regional councils of educa¬ 
tion covering the various local school districts and having charge of 
primary education in their respective districts. Normal and sec¬ 
ondary schools are dependent on the national council of education. 
The duties of the regional councils of education are as follows: To 


PARAGUAY. 


45 


see to the fulfillment of education laws, regulations, and orders; to 
watch the progress of schools; to keep statistics of the schools and 
matters pertaining thereto; to pay salaries, as the money is received; 
to advance in every possible way the progress of education, the 
improvement of teachers, the founding of libraries, the holding of 
conferences, etc. Each regional council of education is composed of 
four members: A president appointed by the Chief Executive who 
is also director general, for the schools of his region and holds office 
for four years; two members also appointed by the President of the 
Republic on nomination of the national council of education for 
terms of one year, though eligible to reappointment; and a secretary 
appointed by the national council of education. 

Each regional council of education is supplied with a number of 
school inspectors determined annually by the national council of 
education. The presidents of the regional councils, as director 
generals of public education in their respective districts, represent 
the regional boards in public acts before public and educational 
authorities; authorize payments, accounts, and reports; oversee the 
inspection of schools; make personal inspection at least once a year 
and report to the general directorate of schools; and go to the 
capital in January of each year to report and receive instruction for 
the new year. The district inspectors work under orders of the 
regional councils and the regional directors, who are clothed with 
the immediate authority of primary instruction. 

THE SCHOOL TERM. 

The official school year extends from January to December, inclu¬ 
sive, but the school session op r s on the 15th of February and closes 
on the 15th of December. The regular term of the grade schools is 
of eight months, though owing to vacations and other recesses the 
actual sessions are usually about seven months per year. The 
primary school sessions (urban) are generally from 8 a. m. to 12 noon 
for girls and from 1 p. m. to 5 p. m. for boys. The recitation period 
varies from 30 minutes in the primary schools to 45 or 50 minutes in 
the higher grades of the secondary schools. The summer months 
are December, January, February; and the winter months, June, 
july ; August. The first two are the hottest and the last two the 
coldest. 

PRIMARY EDUCATION. 

According to the constitution primary instruction is obligatory 
between the ages of 7 and 12 (girls) or 14 (boys), but owing to the 
lack of school funds, buildings, and teachers, the compulsory pro¬ 
vision does not seem to be enforced. Most educational work, of 
whatever grade, is found only in the cities and towns. The complete 


54S94°—23-4 



46 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


primary course covers six years or grades. It fits for full entrance 
into the national colegios and normal schools. In 1919 there were 
1,268 public primary schools employing 1,808 teachers (653 men and 
1,155 women), with 78,399 pupils (44,137 boys and 34,262 girls), 
75 private schools with 141 teachers and 4,021 pupils (2,173 boys 
and 1,848 girls). 

The course of study, including the time given to each subject, is 
found in the table under the title Schedule of the complete primary 
school of Asuncion, Paraguay. This course represents the most- 
favored situations and is far in advance of that found in rural condi¬ 
tions, both in subject matter and years of the course. The Govern¬ 
ment is specially interested in extending the rudiments of primary 
education to the people in rural conditions. For this purpose the 
President of the Republic, in an address to Congress, 1921, said in part: 

It is time that rural primary instruction should take a practical turn. The schools 
most needed are those devoted to the study of agriculture, cattle raising, and agri¬ 
cultural industries. The success of the rural districts depends on the agricultural 
development of the country and that of the cattle industry. The benefits of science 
must be utilized to the advantage of the individual as well as of the whole community. 

Schedule of the complete primary school of Asuncion, Paraguay. 


Subjects. 


Class period per week in each year.* 


II 


m 


IV 


VI Total. 


Reading and writing. 

Arithmetic. 

Geometry (simple notions). 

Spanish. 

Useful information. 

Civic and moral instruction. 

Geography of Paraguay. 

Geography, American and European. 

Geography, Asia, Africa, Oceania_ 

History of Paraguay. 

History (general). 

Music and singing. 

Gymnasium. 

Manual training. 

Drawing. 


Total recitation periods per week 1 . 


24 


34 


34 


31 


31 


31 


11 

12 

5 

2 

2 

4 

2 

11 

11 

12 

6-185 


305/6 


1 It should be observed that the recitation periods represent 30 minutes or less, making but half as many 
hours per week. J 


The above is the standard program of but few of the best public 
primary schools. 

SECONDARY EDUCATION. 

Secondary education is provided by the Government in three public 
secondary schools, “colegios nacionales,” one located in Asuncion; 
one in the city of Villarica; one in Pilar. There are a few private 
secondary schools, and the normal schools cover in part secondary 
subjects. In 1919 (the latest information available) there were con¬ 
nected with the three public secondary schools 46 teachers and 740 


































PARAGUAY. 


47 


students. According to the decree of 1919, the curriculum of the 
secondary schools is divided into two cycles: The first, covering four 
years of general subjects; the second, covering the last two years of 
special subjects. The last two years, offered only in the Colegio 
Nacional of Asuncion, are required to obtain the bachelor’s degree 
and for entrance into the university faculties of law, medicine, and 
engineering. When in practical operation the last two years as 
planned in the decree (1919) will be given under three groups: (a) 
Humanities; (h) natural sciences; (c) mathematics and physical 
sciences. All courses lead to the bachelor’s degree in the appro¬ 
priate field, as “bachiller en letras, ciencias naturales, or matematicas.” 

Latin is required to enter the school of law, and German to enter 
the school of medicine. To enter the schools of pharmacy, dentistry, 
obstetrics, veterinary, notary, surveying, and agriculture the diploma 
obtained on completing the first cycle of four years is sufficient, in 
which case there is a slight shifting of subjects required from the 
present combined course as presented under “ Schedule of the Colegio 
National of Asuncion.” 


Schedule of the National Colegio of Asuncion, Paraguay (1922). 


Class periods 1 per week in each year. 


Subjects. 


I 


Spanish language and literature. 

French. 

German or Latin. 

Arithmetic.. 

Algebra. 

Geometry. 

Trigonometry, topography, and cosmography 

History. 

Geography. 

Botany and geology. 

Anatomy, physiology, and hygiene. 

Zoology. 

Common law. 

Physics. 

Chemistry. 

Drawing and penmanship. 

Gymnasium. 

Civics and practical ethics. 

Psychology and logic. 

Moral and general philosophy. 

Civil government and political economy. 

Total class periods per week. 


II 


5 

5 


4 


3 

3 


2 


22 


III 


IV 



V 


3 


5 


3 


4 


4 


3 


2 

2 


26 


VI 


Total. 


3 3 22 

. 13 

5 .5 15 

.. 8 

. 4 

3 . 6 



4 

18 

7 
4 
3 
2 

3 

8 
6 

4 

12 

4 

4 

3 

2-152 


25 | 


1 The class periods in the above colegio are 45 minutes and the school year 36 weeks. In the new regime 
the course, at least in the last two years, will vary slightly from the above by offering in the different groups 
less of some subjects and more of others. 


PREPARATION AND SALARY OF TEACHERS. 

There are six normal schools located at Asuncion, Villarica, Con¬ 
cepcion, Encarnacion, Barrero Grande, and San Juan Bantista, with 
27 male and 195 female students in 1919. They require for entrance 
the completion of the six grades primary school and offer a four- 
years’ course equivalent in academic subjects to the first cycle of 
















































48 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


the colegio plus six periods in pedagogy and one year of satisfactory 
classroom practice in the normal schools. 

There are no specified qualifications for teachers either in primary 
or secondary schools or the university. The salaries are usually so 
low that teachers are compelled to devote part of their time to other 
pursuits in order to earn a livelihood. The salaries of primary 
teachers in Asuncion range from 300 to 750 Paraguayan paper pesos 
per month (the Paraguayan paper peso, normal exchange, is equiva¬ 
lent to about 19J cents in the United States currency), while 
professors in the secondary schools receive approximately 2,000 Para¬ 
guayan paper pesos per month for weekly classes of 15 hours. The 
Paraguayan paper peso is at present (1922) equivalent to about 2 
cents United States currency. 

The school law of 1921 divides the primary school teachers into 
four classes—normal professors, normal teachers, elementary normal 
teachers, and teachers. The first three classes hold diplomas of 
graduation; the last is without professional titles. Appointment 
and promotion are the result of competitive examination in which 
the professional rating, amount and quality of experience are given 
special weight. Under a provision in the new law primary-schCol 
administrators and teachers may not be discharged as long as they 
conduct themselves properly, nor may they be transferred by the 
director general without the permission of the national council of 
education. A teacher’s pension system is provided in the law, and 
provision is also made for the future salaries of teachers. Teachers’ 
salaries are to be calculated according to professional standing, 
length and record of service on the following basis: First class, 
normal professors, 2,000 pesos (the Paraguayan gold peso, normal 
exchange, is equivalent to about 97 cents in United States currency); 
second class, normal teachers, 1,000 pesos; third class, normal 
elementary teachers, 800 pesos; and the fourth class, teachers with¬ 
out titles, 400 pesos. All titled teachers are eligible to 2J per cent 
increase of salary every 5 years up to 20 years of service, if they 
satisfactorily fulfill their duties. 

HIGHER EDUCATION. 

There is the National University of Paraguay at Asuncion, which 
contains faculties or schools of law, medicine, pharmacy, obstetrics, 
engineering, social science, and notary. There is also in Asuncion 
the Paraguayan Institute of Fine Arts—painting and music. The 
Government maintains in Asuncion a commercial school, military 
and.military aviation schools, schools for vocational training, arts 
and trades, industry, drawing, radiotelegraphy, and dressmaking, 
most of which rank below the best secondary schools. The national 
library, the national archives, the natural history museum, the bo¬ 
tanic-zoological garden are under the care of the department of 


PERU. 


49 


public instruction. The Government frequently sends students to 
Europe and the United States for various kinds of higher technical 
education. 

Steps in the education system of Paraguay. 



EDUCATION IN PERU. 

An unusually interesting experiment in the reorganization of the 
school system of the Republic of Peru has been in operation for the 
past three or more years. In 1910 the President of Peru, Augustia 
B. Leguia, invited four educators of the United States, Dr. Harry E. 
Bard, Joseph Macknight, Joseph B. Lockey, and Dr. Albert A. 
Giesecke, to aid the Peruvian educators in a complete reorganization 
of the educational system, adapting it to modern conditions and local 
needs. Doctor Bard became “Consultor al Ministro de Instruccion,” 
Joseph Macknight was appointed director of the Men’s Normal School, 
Joseph B. Lockey, inspector of the Department of Lima, and Doctor 
Giesecke was made rector of the State University of Cuzco. Miss 
Grace Carnahan was appointed, also, as inspector of girls’ schools of 
Lima. Out of this combined effort and study of educators grew the 
revised school law of 1920, the workings of which will be observed 
with more than passing interest. 

Following the passage of the law, Doctor Bard was again commis¬ 
sioned by President Leguia to return to the States to select a com¬ 
mittee of 25 educators, who with himself would act in conjunction 
with Dr. Oscar C. Barros, Minister of Justice and Public Instruction, 
and other school officers and educators of Peru, in carrying out the 
provisions of the new school law and readjusting its application to 
the education of the people. The new school law supersedes that of 
1901, and consists of 571 articles grouped as follows: 

(а) Primary section, authorities in education administration. 

(б) Primary education, current and vocational. 

(c) Secondary education. 

\d) Higher education, University of San Marcos of Lima. 

(e) Technical schools of higher education in Lima. 

(?) The ‘‘Centro Estudiantil Universitario. ” 

(g) The three other State universities of Peru—Cuzco, Arequipa, Trujillo. 

(Ji) Private universities. 







































50 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


Members of the American Educational Mission were assigned to 
service in the education system of Peru under the following heads: 
Director of examinations and studies; director of libraries and school 
museums; director of school construction; three regional school 
directors; directors of the superior school of industrial arts, the su¬ 
perior school of commerce, the superior school of pedagogical science, 
the superior school of agriculture, and the superior school of engineer¬ 
ing, constituting the university of technical schools. 

Under the Minister of Justice, Worship, and Public Instruction, 
Dr. Harry E. Bard, who had been called as a leader in the movement, 
was made director general of education of the entire country and 
rector of the University of Technical Schools. After serving for a 
brief period in these capacities, he resigned from office in March, 1922, 
and Dr. Lester M. Wilson, who had been called from this country in 
the capacity of director of examinations and studies, was appointed 
to the office of director general of education, still retaining his 
former position. There have been a number of changes from the 
original mission, some of which have been quite disappointing. 

The reorganization of the school system, while well advanced, is 
still in the transitory period and is apt to be considerably modified 
before taking on permanent form. The new school law may be found 
to be too far in advance of the needs and wishes of the people to be 
immediately operative and appreciated. However, the outlook is 
promising, and if the experiment succeeds it will doubtless be followed 
by other countries in remodeling their education systems. 

GENERAL STATEMENTS. 

The Republic of Peru embraces 533,916 square miles and contains 
an estimated population of 4,620,000, mostly Indian (57.6 per cent) 
and mestizos (24.8 per cent), with about 14 per cent white and a few 
negroes and Asiatics. The estimates of the number of children 
between 7 and 15 vary considerably, but the number is probably 
close to 500,000. According to the message of the President, July 28, 
1922, the primary school attendance for the year 1921 was 202,828, 
an increase of 8,127 over the former year. There were in 1920, 
29 Government colegios, or secondary schools, with 372 teachers and 
6,669 pupils, and the central University of San Marcos at Lima, the 
State universities at Arequipa, Cuzco, and Trujillo. The law of 
February 5, 1921, created the University of Technical Schools, 
comprising superior schools of engineering, agriculture, commerce, 
industrial arts, and pedagogy. By the law of February 5, 1921, 
elementary education is free and compulsory between the ages of 7 
and 14. 


PERU.. 


51 


ADMINISTRATION. 

The education system of Peru is highly centralized. At the head 
of the system is the President of the Republic, representing the Govern¬ 
ment, having controlling, appointive, and directive powers. Under 
the President and appointed by him is the Minister of Justice and 
Education, a cabinet officer, whose chief function is to cooperate with 
the President in direction and administration of school affairs, in 
recommending or approving of the appointment of the leading school 
officers and professors, and immediate direction of and authority over 
the under school officers of the Republic. There is a national 
(advisory) council of education of seven members appointed by the 
President for terms of seven years, one member going off the board 
every year. There is also a national examining board consisting of 
two members appointed by the Minister of Education on the recom¬ 
mendation of. the director of examinations and studies; the latter 
officer is ex officio member and chairman of the board. 

Under the Minister of Education, the chief administrative official is 
the director general of education, and in each of the three divisions 
of the Republic, north, central, south, there is a regional director of 
education, bringing the administration of education in direct contact 
with the people of the local communities. The regional directors 
are charged with the administration, supervision, and inspection of 
both primary and secondary education throughout the territory of 
their jurisdiction; appointing and removing, subject to review by the 
director general of education, assistant inspectors, directors and 
professors of colegios, directors and teachers of primary schools, the 
communal fiscal school board of which he is chairman and third 
member. He supervises the primary and secondary school budget, 
authorizes the opening of private schools and colegios, requiring 
them to conform to standard curricula, gathers and reports on 
school statistics and other information for the director general of 
education, prepares courses of study, and directs in the methods of 
teaching. 

The term of the regional director is four years, the same as that of 
the director general. The duties of the office covering the region 
represented are similar to those of the director general for the entire 
country. Immediately under the director general of education is a 
group of seven directors or chiefs of sections of special divisions of 
education who with the director general form a functioning board 
for the promulgation of education. From the standpoint of school 
administration and supervision the office of director general of instruc¬ 
tion is the most important educational position in the Republic. 

At the head of each university is the rector, and at the head of 
each school or faculty is the dean. In the older institutions the 


52 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


rectors receive their appointment through the vote of the faculties 
or university council; in the newer universities the appointment is 
made by the President of the Republic or the Minister of Justice and 
Education. 

There nave been added recently, under the new regime, new school 
officers known as school agents, whose functions are not clearly 
defined. They are appointed by the regional directors, one for each 
province, from normal or the best-trained teachers, who usually, in 
addition to the office of teacher, become sort of supervisor of the teach¬ 
ing and school work of the province. The office of school agent is 
without salary, since it is to be filled by one receiving pa}^ for another 
Government position. It thus makes use of a few carefully selected 
teachers in a double capacity. 

PRIMARY EDUCATION. 

The regular primary school covers a five-years’ course divided into 
two cycles—the first grade or common primary of two (rural) or 
three years (urban), and the second grade or vocational primary of 
two years; to the latter may be added two additional years when 
and where the requirements justify. The new requirements even 
more than the old tend to modernize and vocationalize both primary 
and secondary education. In communities where the illiteracy is large, 
effort is made to establish primary schools of the minimum two-years’ 
course, giving to children the barest rudiments of common education, 
in which knowledge of the Spanish language is made the basis. 
Children over 14 are excluded from the primary schools. If they 
desire to continue primary education they must do so in adult schools 
or in special schools provided for vocational training. 

Primary schools of the second grade may be established separately 
under their own direction and independent of the regular primary 
schools. It is also authorized that the second-grade or vocational 
primary school be maintained as a section in connection with every 
national colegio, to which may be added also a first-grade or common 
primary section, but in the latter case the pupils of the first and sec¬ 
ond primary must be kept separate aixd taught in different sections. 

Coeducation, while practiced in some communities, is not common; 
both primary and secondary schools are for boys only, girls only, or 
mixed. Completion of the five-years’ primary course entitles to full 
entrance into the colegios. Subjects of study are moral, religious, 
and civic education; Spanish, including reading, writing, orthogra¬ 
phy, and the rudiments of grammar; nature study, manual training 
in garden or shop (boys), domestic science (girls); arithmetic, and 
simple notions of geometry; elements of history and geography; 
drawing and music. All rural schools are required to establish school 


PERU. 


53 


gardens in which to demonstrate lessons on agriculture and country 
life. In city schools wherever the circumstances permit school gar¬ 
dens are also established and shops and laboratories that will adjust 
the instruction to the needs of the community. The length of the 
school }^ear in favored conditions is 10 months—February to Novem¬ 
ber, inclusive—and the week 5J (primary) to 6 days (colegio). 

SECONDARY EDUCATION. 

Secondary education is offered in the colegios nacionales and covers 
a course of five years for both boys and girls. Of the 29 national 
colegios hut 4 are for girls only, and but few girls are in attendance 
on the colegios. The national colegios are of two types, general and 
vocational. The former fits for entrance to the arts faculty of the 
university, wherein after 2 additional years of study (12 in all) is 
obtained the bachelor’s degree and eligibility to entrance in the pro¬ 
fessional schools of medicine, law, and political science; the latter 
offers training in agriculture, arts and trades, domestic economy, 
commerce, and normal training and fits for practical life or advanced 
training in these lines. The vocational secondary schools may be 
joined as annexes to regular colegios or they may be set up as inde¬ 
pendent establishments under the name of agricultural, industrial, 
and commercial colegios, normal schools, arts and crafts, technical 
institutes, and analogous names. They may cover but three years of 
vocational training in addition to the second-grade vocational pri¬ 
mary, or they may cover in part or complete all subjects of the 
common colegios. 

The national secondary schools (colegios), as the primary schools, 
are divided into two cycles, the first of which, covering three years, is 
devoted to fundamental and practical subjects of immediate utility; 
the second cycle, of two years, is devoted to an extension of the sub¬ 
ject matter of the first and gives more attention to application. The 
subject matter in the different types of colegios is much the same, 
though, as the names imply, greater stress is placed in the one on 
vocational subjects, in the other on cultural subjects. Subjects of 
study are Spanish language and literature, English, or French; geog¬ 
raphy and history, general and local; mathematics including arith¬ 
metic, elements of algebra, geometry, trigonometry; physical and 
natural science including the elements of physics, mechanics, chem¬ 
istry, anatomy, physiology, zoology, botany, mineralogy, geology; 
religious, moral, civic, and economic education; psychology; drawing 
and modeling; manual training; music; physical education. In the 
colegios for girls more attention is given to civic education and less to 
mathematics, physical and natural sciences; domestic science, home 
and pedagogical instruction is added. 


54 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


For entrance into the regular colegios one must be 12 years of age 
and must pass the examination showing the completion of the five 
years primary. There are few, if any, regular teachers in the colegios 
devoting their whole time to teaching; at least the greater number of 
instructors of the national colegios are practicing lawyers, doctors, 
engineers, priests, merchants, etc., who devote but part time to teach¬ 
ing while carrying on at the same time the interests of their professions 
or trades. The new law provides for overcoming this difficulty by 
giving more attention to the professional training of teachers for 
both primary and secondary education and increasing the tenure, 
emoluments, and favors for professionally prepared teachers. There 
are a number of private institutions offering both primary and sec¬ 
ondary education. These are subject to the supervision and con¬ 
trol of the regional director and must conform to the Government 
curricula. 

HIGHER EDUCATION. 

In addition to the University of San Marcos, Lima, and the State 
universities at Arequipa, Cuzco, and Trujillo, and the new University 
of Technical Schools mentioned above, the Government maintains 
special academies of music and fine arts and a number of military 
schools of either secondary or college rank and three agricultural and 
four normal training schools of secondary grade. The University of 
Technical Schools, created by the new law, took over the former 
engineering college and provides for superior schools of engineering, 
agriculture, industrial arts, commerce, and pedagogy. The old and 
renowned University of San Marcos has faculties of theology; juris¬ 
prudence; medicine; mathematical, physical, and natural sciences; 
political and economic sciences; philosophy, history, and letters. The 
three State universities above mentioned offer courses of the same 
general nature as those of San Marcos. 

Graduates of the national colegios on examination are eligible to 
entrance in the university faculty of philosophy and letters, wherein 
after two years of study they may be granted the bachelor’s degree 
and on two additional years the degree doctor of letters. For ad¬ 
mission to the schools of law and medicine the candidate must possess 
the bachelor’s degree in letters and science obtained by two years of 
study beyond the colegio. Two additional years of study lead to the 
degrees bachelor of law or of medicine and three more years to doctor 
of law or of medicine. The full courses in mining, and industrial and 
construction engineering require five years beyond the colegio. 


URUGUAY. 


55 


Steps in the education system of Peru. 



, GENERAL STATEMENT. 

The Republic of Uruguay is the smallest of the South American 
Republics, comprising 72,210 square miles and an estimated' popula¬ 
tion (1922) of 1,564,000, one-third of which is in Montevideo and 
the small Department of which it is the capital. Uruguay, which is 
composed of 19 Departments, is a triangular strip of country lying 
between the southeastern point of Brazil and Argentina. It is bounded 
on the north by Brazil, on the east and south by the Atlantic Ocean 
and the Rio de la Plata, and on the west by the Uruguay River, 
which separates it from the Republic of Argentina. It consists, in the 
main, of broad undulating grass-covered plains fringed with hills and 
low mountain ranges in the north and low alluvial tracts in the south¬ 
west. Situated in the south temperate zone but 7° south of the 
Tropics, bordering the ocean and surrounded on three sides by water, 
it possesses a mild and even temperature, rarely falling below 35° 
Farenheit in winter or rising above 86° in summer. It is reputed to be, 
on the whole, one of the most healthful countries of the globe. 

It possesses great agricultural possibilities still undeveloped, but 
the chief industry is that of live stock, the raising of cattle and sheep. 
The majority of the inhabitants are Indians and mestizos, but there 
is a larger proportional white population than in many of the other 
South American Republics. The public schools are secular^ and the 
education system in most respects is quite similar to that of the 
adjoining republics. 
















































































56 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


The school statistics of 1920 give the number of public primary 
schools as 1,005; private, 195; the number of pupils enrolled in public 
schools, 106,892; boys, 55,513; girls, 51,379; in private schools, 
17,115; the number of teachers employed, 428 men, 2,726 women. 
Of the 106,892 pupils enrolled in the public schools, 43,809 (24,025 
boys and 19,784 girls) were in rural schools, and 63,083 (31,488 
boys and 31,595 girls) were in urban schools. 

ADMINISTRATION. 

According to the new constitution (1918), the executive power of 
Uruguay is divided between the President of the Republic and a 
national administrative council consisting of nine members, six of the 
majority party and three of the largest minority party. Both the 
President and the members of the council are elected by popular 
vote, the former for four years and the latter for six years. The 
President appoints and controls the Ministers of Foreign Affairs, of 
War and Marine, and of the Interior; the council appoints and controls 
the Ministers of Finance and Industry, Public Works, Public Instruc¬ 
tion, Labor, and Charities and Public Health. 

All State and public schools are in charge of the general board of 
primary instruction composed of the Minister of Public Instruction, 
president; the national inspector of primary instruction, first vice 
president; a second vice president and three other members; and a 
general secretary, all being appointed by the national administrative 
council. The duties of the general board of primary instruction are as 
follows: To direct primary instruction in the entire country; to 
examine, appoint, and dismiss teachers; to publish an educational 
magazine and reports; to choose and furnish textbooks; to supervise 
programs and rules of schools; to study and make suggestions to the 
executive authority as to reforms in organization of systems and 
methods used. The national inspector visits the public schools of 
the Republic and makes an annual report, which must be approved 
by the Minister of Public Instruction before it is published. 

In each of the 19 Departments is a committee of primary instruction 
composed of five members as follows: A member of the administra¬ 
tive council of the municipality as president; the departmental in¬ 
spector as vice president, and three resident members elected by the 
council for three years. These committees are charged with the 
administration and supervision of schools in the respective depart¬ 
ments. There are subinspectors who assist both the national inspector 
and the departmental inspectors in inspection and organization of 
schools. < 


URUGUAY. 


57 


SCHOOL YEAR. 

The school year varies slightly in the number of days, hours per 
day, number and length of class periods per day and week, according 
to the grade and institution. However, the usual length of the 
school year is 180 days, five days per week, of 4J to 5 hours per day, 
and a class period varying from 30 to 45 minutes. 

PRIMARY EDUCATION. 

Primary education is free and obligatory, covering at least the first 
three grades or years. The Government also furnishes the necessary 
textbooks and school supplies. The public primary schools are 
classified as rural and urban, the former covering a course of three 
years and the latter a course of five, six, or seven years. Most of 
the children in the rural schools stop with the first grade and less 
than one-fourth finish the third grade. The subjects in the rural 
schools are as follows: 

First year: Reading, writing, arithmetic, language, agriculture, history of Uruguay, 
drawing, singing, and object lessons. 

Second year: As in the first, with the addition of geography, physiology, consti¬ 
tution, and morality. 

Third year: As in the second, with the addition of geometry. 

The ordinary urban primary school covers a course of five years, 
the lower primary of three years, and the upper primary of two years. 
From the fifth year the pupils are ready to take the entrance exam¬ 
ination to the liceos or secondary schools. In Montevideo there is 
an advanced primary school covering seven grades designated as 
follows: Lower primary, three grades; middle primary, two grades; 
superior, two grades. The courses of study in the ordinary and 
advanced primary schools are practically the same for the first five 
years, the advanced primary adding a sixth and even a seventh if 
desired. The subjects of study in the advanced primary, including 
the years wdien offered, are as follows: Reading, first to seventh, inclu¬ 
sive; writing, first to seventh, inclusive; arithmetic, first to seventh, 
inclusive; language, first to seventh, inclusive; object lessons, first 
to fifth, inclusive; animals, plants, minerals, first and second, inclu¬ 
sive; physiology, first to seventh, inclusive; morality, first to seventh, 
inclusive; customs, first to fifth, inclusive; urbanity, first to seventh, 
inclusive; drawing, first to seventh, inclusive; singing, first to sixth, 
inclusive; history, third to seventh, inclusive; handwork, first to 
sixth, inclusive; physics, third to seventh, inclusive; constitution, 
third to seventh, inclusive; geography, fourth to seventh, inclusive; 
geometry, fourth to seventh, inclusive; chemistry, fifth to seventh, 
inclusive; geology, sixth and seventh, inclusive; mineralogy and 
manual training, in the seventh grade only. 


58 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. 

There are eight normal schools in the Republic, two of which, one 
for either sex, are located in Montevideo. Men and women attend 
different schools, as is customary throughout the Republic. Teachers 
in private schools are not required by law to possess certificates or 
show other proof of competency, but an inspector visits private 
schools for the purpose of ascertaining whether or not the instruc¬ 
tion given is contrary to the laws and morals of the Republic. To 
teach in the public schools, it is necessary to hold a Government 
diploma or certificate corresponding to the grade requirement of the 
particular school. There are three grades of teachers’ certificates— 
the first-grade primary and rural covering the lower primary and 
three-year rural schools, the second-grade primary meeting the require¬ 
ments for teaching in the urban primary schools of five grades; the 
third-grade primary required for teaching in the higher primary of 
six or seven grades. 

The normal schools offer three courses meeting the requirements 
for the above certificates—a four-years’ course leading to the first- 
grade certificate; a five-years’ course leading to the second-grade 
certificate; a six-years’ course leading to the third-grade certificate. 
Entrance into the normal schools is on examination based on the 
completion of the five-year primary school. Teachers’ certificates 
are also obtained on passing corresponding examinations to the 
normal-school graduates before an examining committee appointed 
by the general board. The annual salaries paid teachers are: First 
grade and rural, 720 pesos (the peso, normal exchange, is about 
$1.04 United States currency); second grade, 840 pesos; third grade, 
1,200 pesos. After 25 years’ service teachers can retire on full salary, 
and at death half the pension passes to the wife or mother. 

All teachers must pass the prescribed examination in agriculture, 
which is a compulsory subject of study. In addition to the usual 
academic subjects, the four-years’ normal course gives instruction in 
pedagogy, and the six-years’ normal course gives instruction in 
philosophy, critical pedagogy, and history of education. 

SECONDARY EDUCATION. 

Secondary education is offered in State “liceos,” in semiofficial 
institutions, and in private schools conforming to the official regu¬ 
lations. There is at least one secondary school (liceo) in each of the 
19 Departments; 22 departmental liceos and 4 at the capital. The 
liceos offer a four-year general course and require for entrance an 
examination based on the completion of the fifth-year primary school. 
The subjects of study are Spanish, French, English or German, his¬ 
tory, civics, natural history, physics, chemistry, mathematics, draw- 


URUGUAY. 


59 


ing, commerce, industry, geography, cosmography, hygiene, and 
physical training. Graduation from these four-year liceos leads 
to the certificate of “suficiencia liceal’’ (secondary studies) and 
entitles to entrance in the schools of commerce, notary, agriculture, 
veterinary science, or the advanced two-year preparatory course 
leading on graduation to the bachelor’s degree and entrance to the 
professional schools of law, medicine, engineering, architecture, and 
surveying. Entrance to the schools of pharmacy and dentistry 
requires but one year in the preparatory school. There are six 
preparatory schools in connection with the liceos of Salto, Paysandu, 
Melo, Mercedes, and two at Montevideo. The courses of study in 
these advanced liceos or preparatory schools are planned with refer¬ 
ence to the requirements of the different professional schools of law, 
medicine, engineering, etc. The liceos and preparatory schools had 
an enrollment in 1919 of 4,943 students. 

HIGHER EDUCATION. 

The institutions of higher education are located in the capital, 
principally in connection with the University of Montevideo itself. 
The university is made up of faculties of medicine including a depart¬ 
ment of dentistry, law and social science, mathematics, engineering, 
architecture, commerce, veterinary science, agriculture, and com¬ 
plete secondary instruction. The latter is a boys’ secondary school 
and acts as a model for all secondary instruction. It receives stu¬ 
dents of 12 years of age on examination after passing the fifth-grade 
primary, and offers a six-year course leading to the bachelor’s 
degree and entrance to the appropriate professional school of the 
university. The university proper is coeducational, and there has 
been established in Montevideo a school of secondary and preparatory 
instruction for women, corresponding to the men’s secondary school 
of the university above mentioned, where the dean as well as all the 
instructors are women. These schools are quite similar in subject 
matter, instruction, and requirements. 

The principal professional schools of the university vary in length 
of course from four to six years—dentistry four, law and architecture 
five, medicine and engineering six. The Government supports at 
Montevideo a school of arts and crafts, two schools of agriculture 
and veterinary surgery, a national school of commerce, the museum 
of natural history, the historical museum, a pedagogical museum, 
a school of dramatic art, a military school, and a national library 
containing over 60,000 volumes. There are in addition a number of 
private schools located in Montevideo, which is well supplied with 
educational institutions. Considerable attention is now given to 
the promotion of agricultural education and to physical education 
and welfare. 


60 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


Steps in the education system of Uruguay. 


Proximate ages. 


School or grade. 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

Primary school: 

Rural. 









Lower urban.. 


Primary school, urban: 

Ordinary 

1 1 

Advanced.. 


Nermal school: 

Elementary. .. 






‘ 1 

Superior.. 







Secondary school: 

Ordinary. 






i i i. 

1 I 

Advanced. 







Junior colleges, commerce, agricultural, vet¬ 
erinary . 






















Science, notary, gtc. 











University: 

Faculty nf dentistry 











1 -.1 

Law and architecture. 















Medicine and engineering. 

























1 1 1 1 i 


EDUCATION IN VENEZUELA. 

GENERAL STATEMENT. 

The United States of Venezuela, consisting of 20 autonomous and 
politically equal States, two Territories, and a Federal District, is the 
northernmost Republic of South America. It was formerly a part 
of Colombia (separated in 1830) and in racial characteristics quite 
similar to that Republic, as described elsewhere. Geographically it 
is divided into three districts—the vast plains and river valleys of 
the Orinoco, the dry and healthful plateaus to the south and east of 
the Orinoco and the region of Maracaibo, and the mountain section 
formed by the two divisions of the Andes and the Parima range of 
mountains to the east and south. 

The area of Venezuela is 393,976 square miles, and the population, 
census of 1921, was 2,411,952, or 6.1 persons per square mile. Most 
of the white and controlling classes live under urban conditions, where 
the advantages of education are more favorable. No census material 
covering the number of children of school age, the number enrolled 
in school, and the average attendance is available; however, the at¬ 
tendance is small, especially in rural districts, as compared with most 
countries. Primary education is free, whether public or private, and 
according to law obligatory from 7 to 14 or until completing the first 
four grades of the primary school. The compulsory provision of the 
law does not seem to be enforced either in rural or urban situa¬ 
tions. As in many other Latin American Republics, the illiteracy of 
the people is large, and only the selected few have the ambition to 
push on to higher education. 

The schools are both public and private. The former are created 
and maintained by the Federal Government, the individual States, 






























































VENEZUELA. 


61 


and the municipalities. The latter are established and operated by 
individuals and are not subject to any of the rules or regulations 
governing the public schools. However, the Government reserves 
the right to examine the students before issuing official diplomas. 
This function is under the control of the several States, and the 
examinations are usually held in the respective schools by the 
official examiners. 

The public-school system is divided into the usual divisions of 
primary—lower and upper; secondary—colegios and liceos, includ¬ 
ing normal and special; and higher, mostly professional, education. 
The new school law, 1921, provides for subprimary or maternal 
schools, including day nurseries and kindergartens, in which the Federal 
Government is specially interested. The same law provides for com¬ 
pulsory physical education of all pupils and students under 21. The 
special schools, given under the division of secondary education, 
include agriculture, art, industry, trade, commerce, and other analo¬ 
gous branches. Under higher education are included faculties of 
medicine, political science, theology, mathematics and physical 
sciences, biological sciences, philosophy and literature. 

Most of the private schools, some of which are subsidized by the 
Government, are conducted by religious orders of the Catholic church. 

The school year, consisting of 180 to 190 days, extends from 
January 7 to December 15. All the days of the school year are to be 
used for public instruction except Sundays, carnival (prelenten) 
days, those between the second Friday prior to Easter Sunday and 
Easter Sunday, inclusive, the month of August, national feast days, 
and those set apart by the Federal Executive. The length of the school 
day is limited to four hours in the lower primary and five hours in 
the upper primary. The recitation period is limited to 30 minutes in 
the lower primary and 45 minutes in the upper primary. 

SCIIOOL ADMINISTRATION. 

The public primary schools of Venezuela are of three types—- 
Federal, State, and municipal—according to the special authority 
promulgating them. Each of these bodies has been clothed with 
special authority of initiative in establishing primary schools, and has 
done so in the proportion of about 4 Federal to 1 State and 1 munici¬ 
pal. At the head of the entire school system is the President of the 
Republic. An article in the primary-school law reads as follows: 

It is the duty of the Federal Executive to promulgate the internal regulations, the 
schedules and teaching programs of the primary schools, to issue regulations govern¬ 
ing the teachers, and to formulate all other rules which may be necessary for the proper 
execution of the present law. 

The functions of the Federal Executive in all that concerns educa¬ 
tion are exercised through the Minister of Public Instruction, with 
54894°—23-5 


62 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


the following exceptions: (1) Primary and arts and crafts instruc¬ 
tions in penitentiaries, houses of correction, and establishments of 
national beneficence are under the jurisdiction of the Minister of the 
Interior; (2) military, naval and primary instructions in soldiers’ 
barracks are in charge of the Minister of War and Navy. 

Under the Minister of Public Instruction, and of which he is presi¬ 
dent, is the national council of instruction, composed of eight other 
members as follows: Five members, one for each branch of superior 
instruction, law, medicine, theology, mathematics, and the physical 
and natural sciences, philosophy, and literature; one for primary, 
one for secondary, and one for normal instruction. The national 
council of instruction, acting under the Federal Executive and 
Minister of Public Instruction, has direct charge of all education. 
Each member of the national council of instruction becomes president 
of a national commission composed of four other members covering 
the particular field of education represented by the president of the 
commission. One of the important duties of the national commis¬ 
sions is to provide for and carry out the examination system in all 
types and degrees of education. To aid in this functioning of the 
national commissions, subcommittees or delegations are appointed, 
consisting of three members and three substitutes for primary 
education and five members and five substitutes for secondary and 
superior education. There are local municipal boards, school inspec¬ 
tors, teachers, professors, directors, and rectors of special institutions 
that make up the list of school administrators. 

EXAMINATIONS, CERTIFICATES, DEGREES, AND DIPLOMAS. 

From the lowest primary to the highest professional, promotions 
and titles are based on a thoroughly organized Federal examination 
system. These examinations are held at stated times and on the 
completing of individual subjects, grades, courses, academic and 
professional requirements for degrees. There are two types of 
degrees or diplomas—the academic, bachelor and doctor, and the 
professional, law, medicine, pharmacy, dentistry, surveying, archi¬ 
tecture, engineering, agriculture, veterinary; master of primary 
instruction, medical surgeon, midwife, manager; professor of sec¬ 
ondary, normal, and superior schools. Verification of the ability of 
the candidates for official titles is within the jurisdiction of a technical 
board, entitled the national council of instruction. This body 
appoints a national commission for each branch of superior studies 
and one for primary, secondary, and normal instruction, respectively. 
The national council of instruction and the national commissions 
function in the capital of the Republic. The national commissions 
are empowered to appoint delegations and in conjunction with these 
name the examining juries (functioning locally outside of the capital) 


VENEZUELA. 


63 


charged with the verification of the competency of the candidates 
for official titles. 

School inspection is carried on by the national commissions, which 
may delegate their power to boards, technical inspectors, and super¬ 
intendents. The Government has the right to inspect all public 
institutions at its own discretion and all private ones in dealing with 
matters of public order, hygiene, and official certification of students. 

PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. 

Normal instruction is provided for those who wish to enter the 
teaching profession in two separate normal schools at Caracas, the 
Federal capital. There are two separate courses, one of three years 
for the preparation of primary teachers, the other of two years for 
the preparation of secondary teachers. For entrance to the former 
the candidate must be between the ages of 15 and 25, possess good 
health, and the certificate of competency of the complete primary 
school (six grades); for entrance to the latter, one must have obtained 
the certificate of competency of secondary instruction or the corre¬ 
sponding bachelor’s degree. On graduation from the primary normal 
school one receives the title “Master of primary instruction”; on 
graduating from the superior normal school one receives the title 
“Professor of secondary and normal instruction.” 

The position of master or teacher in institutions of public instruc¬ 
tion is obtained through competitive examinations. When once 
appointed, masters and professors can not be discharged except for 
repeated absence, insubordination, bad conduct, or incapacity prop¬ 
erly verified. After 20 years of continuous service, masters and pro¬ 
fessors acquire the right to a pension. Temporary teachers may be 
employed in primary education with less qualification, but only per¬ 
sons who hold the official title, of master of primary instruction may 
be appointed permanently. Individuals less than 18 or over CO years 
of age can not be appointed teachers. Lower primary schools for 
boys may be taught by teachers of either sex, but girls and mixed 
schools must be taught by women teachers. The schools are nonco- 
educational except in communities where but one school and teacher 
are required, in which case the school is mixed, open to both sexes. 

PRIMARY EDUCATION. 

The regular primary school is taught in two divisions—the lower 
primary, covering the first four grades (a grade is supposed to cover 
a year’s work, but it is completed in less time by the bright pupil); and 
the upper primary, covering the last two grades of the complete (six 
grades) primary school. The lower and upper primary schools may 
be taught in separate institutions or combined in one complete pri¬ 
mary school. The course in the former is more rudimentary and gen- 


64 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


eralized, that of the latter more specialized and vocational. This 
principle of devoting the first years of the course to general informa¬ 
tion and the last years of the course to special and practical knowl¬ 
edge seems to run through the entire system of education. The com¬ 
plete primary school is usually found only in cities and more favored 
communities.- Only the lower primary is found in general throughout 
the country, and in rural conditions is modified to meet local needs. 

Religion is required to be taught on the request of parents, pro¬ 
vided the number of children of the given sect exceeds 10. The 
course of study of the primary schools is formulated by the Minister 
of Public Instruction and is uniform throughout the Republic, except 
as modified in rural and backward communities to meet local condi¬ 
tions. To pass from the lower to the upper primary requires the cer¬ 
tificate of completion or a special examination; likewise to pass from 
the upper primary to the secondary schools requires the certificate of 
graduation or a special examination. 

Subjects of study: Lower primary—Spanish language, reading, 
writing, numbers, moral and civic instruction, rudiments of local 
geography and history, elements of manual training or girls’ handi¬ 
work, rudimentary ideas of the human body, politeness and hygiene, 
domestic animals and objects of use to man, national hymns and 
school songs, gymnastic exercise; upper primary—elements of Span¬ 
ish grammar, arithmetic, geography and history of Venezuela and 
notions of general geography and history, elementary science, rudi¬ 
ments of drawing and music, and continuation of the subjects of the 
lower primary. 

SPECIAL SCHOOLS. 

There are many special schools with varying programs and time 
requirements created to supply local desires and needs. These are of 
two types—subprimary and primary, including Government maternal 
schools—nurseries and kindergartens for children under 7, adult 
schools for those over 14, schools for the blind, deaf, and mentally 
deficient; secondary including schools of commerce, industrial arts 
and trades, music and elocution, sculpture, and nursing. There are 
three commercial schools—one at Maracaibo, one at Ciudad fiolivar, 
and one at Caracas. There are two industrial arts and trades 
schools—one for men and one for women—two for nurses, one for 
music and elocution, and one for sculpture at the capital. 

SECONDARY EDUCATION. 

The full course of secondary education covers six years and is based 
on the completion of the six years’ primary school for entrance. It 
fits for entrance to the university and all professional schools. Like 
the primary school it is offered in two divisions—a four years’ course 


VENEZUELA. 


65 


covering subjects of general culture, followed by a two years’ course 
of specialized subjects. These courses may be taught in separate 
schools or combined in the same institution. Usually the colegios 
offer but the general course, while the liceos have both courses com¬ 
bined. The special course covers subjects of either philosophy and 
letters preparing for admission to higher education; medical and 
natural sciences preparing for entrance to the study of medicine and 
surgery, botany, zoology, and agriculture; mathematical and physical 
sciences preparing for the higher courses in civil and mining engineer¬ 
ing, and architecture. 

The prescribed course of the general studies of secondary education 
covered by the colegios is given under the time schedule found else¬ 
where. The studies of the specialized course are as follows: 

Section of Philosophy and Letters. 

First year: Latin, Greek, general literature and history of literature, philosophy, 
German, freehand drawing. 

Second year: Latin, general literature and history of literature, history of philosophy, 
German, freehand drawing. 

Section of Natural and Physical Sciences. 

First year: Physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, elements of astronomy, German, 
freehand drawing. 

Second year: Physics, chemistry, mineralogy and geology, general biology, German, 
freehand drawing. 

Section of Physical Sciences and Mathematics. 

First year: Physics, chemistry, algebra, plane and solid geometry, German, mechani¬ 
cal drawing. 

Second year: Physics, chemistry, rectilinear and spherical trigonometry, elements 
of topography, elements of astronomy, German, topographic drawing. 

Steps in the education system of Venezuela. 


Proximate ages. 


School or grade. 


Lower primary school. 

Upper primary school. 

Complete primary school. 

Secondary school: 

Colegio. 

Liceo. 

Elementary normal school. 

Superior normal school. 

University and professional schools: 


7 

8 

9 

10 







Surveying. 

Solicitor. 

Veterinary. 

Dentistry. 

Pharmacy. 

Civil engineering 

Theology. 

Law. 

Medicine. 


11 112 


21 


23 


24 


I I I 








































































66 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


At the completion of the specialized course the student receives 
the degree of bachiller (bachelor) of arts or science, which fulfills 
the entrance requirements to anyone of the corresponding higher 
institutions. 

HIGHER EDUCATION. 

There are two universities in Venezuela—the central University 
at Caracas (closed since October, 1912) and the University of the 
Andes at Merida. Higher education is also given in separate faculties 
or professional schools, as the schools of medicine, political sciences, 
mathematics, physical and natural sciences at Caracas. Higher 
education is also extended and popularized by the Government 
through special academies or learned societies, as the Venezuela 
Academy of the Spanish Language, the National Academy of History, 
the National Academy of Medicine, the Academy of Political and 
Social Sciences, the College of Engineers, the National Library, the 
Museum of Natural History and Archeology, the Museum of Fine Arts, 
the Educational Museum, the Bolivar Museum, and the Government 
supported meteorological stations at Merida, Maracaibo, Ciudad 
Bolivar, and Calabozo. 

Schedule of standard colegio of Venezuela, covering the four years of general studies. 


Subjects. 


and literature. 


4ench. 

English. 

Beginning Latin and Greek. 

Advanced arithmetic..:. 

Elementary algebra. 

Elementary geometry. 

Elementary trigonometry. 

Geography and history of Venezuela. 

Geography and history of America. 

Universal geography and history. 

Elementary botany, zoology, mineralogy and geology. 

Elementary physics, and chemistry. 

Elementary cosmography and chronology. 

Elementary philosophy. 

Freehand and mechanical drawing. 

Elementary topography and topographic drawing 


Total recitation periods per week. 


Class periods per week in each year. 


24 


III IV Total 


32 


22 


251 


i Average. 












































PART II.— MEXICO, CUBA, AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 


THE EDUCATION SYSTEM OF MEXICO. 

GENERAL INFORMATION. 

The Republic of Mexico, forming the southwest boundary of the 
United States, consists of 28 locally independent States, two Territories, 
and one Federal District (Mexico City). It contains 767,198 square 
miles, a population (1910) of 15,160,369—male 7,504,471 and female 
7,655,898, or 19.2 per square mile. The school population is not 
available, but estimating it at 15 per cent of the general population, 
it would be 2,274,054—male 1,125,670 and female 1,148,384. This 
is probably an under rather than an over estimate. 

The attendance in primary education, which represents about 97 
per cent of the total school enrollment, was given in June, 1921 
(Minister’s report), as follows: Public 711J392—male 369,864, female 
341,728; private 108,183—male 55,081, female 53,102; total 819,775- 
male 424,945, female 394,830, which is about 36 per cent of the 
school population as estimated above. In the same annual report 
the total number of primary schools in the Republic were: Public 
8,388, private 1,327, total 9,715; the number of primary teachers 
20,407—public 17,084, private 3,323—of which 32.6 per cent were 
male and 67.4 per cent female. Illiteracy is still discouragingly 
large, averaging throughout the Republic between 70 and 75 per 
cent. 

Public primary education is secular, compulsory (from 7 to 12 or 
14), and free, though until recently it was fundamentally religious, 
voluntary, and under public and private venture. 

Article 3 of the new constitution is as follows: 

Instruction is free; that given in public institutions of learning shall be secular. 
Primary instruction, whether higher or lower, given in private institutions, shall 
likewise be secular. No religious corporation nor minister of any religious creed 
shall establish or direct schools of primary instruction. Private primary schools may 
be established only subject to official supervision. Primary instruction in public 
institutions shall be gratuitous. 

Similar enactments are found in many of the new State constitu¬ 
tions, but as yet the law does not seem to be carried into effect. 
The private schools, church and lay, cover about one-sixth of pri¬ 
mary education and more nearly half of secondary and higher. 
These schools, however, are subject to Government supervision and 
must conform to the prescribed official curriculum. 


67 



68 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


THE SCHOOL YEAR. 

The school year usually extends from the first of August or Sep¬ 
tember to the last of May or June, July and either June or August 
being vacation months. In some States and institutions, however, 
the school year begins the first of January or February and closes 
the last of October or November. The length of the school year 
varies in different localities, but averages in the better municipalities 
about 200 days of 4 to 6 hours per day and 5 to 6 days per week. 
The class period in the primary schools varies from 20 minutes in 
the lower grades to 45 minutes in the higher; in the secondary schools 
it varies from 40 to 50 minutes. Strict attendance is not insisted 
upon in either primary or secondary education. In the latter schools, 
especially, the students may not be regular in attendance, appearing 
only at stated times to pass the promotion examinations, which by 
intensive study, increasing the number of weekly hours, can be 
accomplished in less than the scheduled time. 

ADMINISTRATION. 

Public-school administration is shared both by the States and the 
Federal Government. The local governments of the States deter¬ 
mine the nature of education (especially primary) within their dis¬ 
tricts, while the Federal Government determines the nature of 
education in the Territories and Federal District. Furthermore, 
through financial aid, public libraries, art museums, extension 
courses, normal and other model schools, the Federal Government 
gives direction to all education throughout the Republic. It is also 
responsible for the immediate direction of secondary and higher 
education, found in but few States and some of the larger munici¬ 
palities. National education is under the immediate control of the 
Federal Congress, and State education is under the immediate con¬ 
trol of State legislatures. 

At the head of the Federal school system is the secretary of public 
instruction, and at the head of the State school system is the general 
director (superintendent) of public education. There are both 
Federal and State school and medical inspectors who assist the head 
officers in executing the law; but probably the most influential 
authority in the administration of education is the town council of 
the municipalities, both Federal and State, to which primary edu¬ 
cation of the local district is confided. The town council is chosen 
by direct vote of the people of the district. The State inspectors- 
and superintendent are appointed by the governor, and the Federal 
inspectors and the secretary of public instruction are appointed by 
the President. The latter is also a member of the President’s cabinet. 


MEXICO. 


69 


THEORY AND PRACTICE. 

In most countries there is considerable divergence between the 
theory or published scheme of education and the actual practice. 
This is especially true in Mexico with its mixed population (19 per 
cent whites, 38 per cent Indians, and 43 per cent mestizos or mixed 
bloods), where for many years unusual political disturbances and 
religious upheavals have shaken the very foundations of the Republic. 
For this reason education is at present in a period of transition and 
radical readjustment, difficult accurately to describe. The great 
majority of the people are still without education or any special 
means of obtaining it. Such education as exists has been imposed 
on the people from without and above rather than been developed 
from within and beneath through human needs and initiative. The 
financial condition of the treasury, the lack of school facilities, the 
dearth of teachers, and the absence of impelling desire for education 
on the part of the masses, all militate against better schools. 

PRIMARY EDUCATION. 

In the published report of education for 1921 the list of primary 
schools was given as follows: Public primary schools for boys 3,137, 
for girls 2,315, for both (mixed) 2,936; private primary schools for 
boys 399, for girls 313, for both (mixed) 615. In attendance the 
private schools represent about one-sixth of the attendance in public 
education. The length of the primary school course varies in different 
parts of the Republic from two to six years. Owing to indifference 
of parents, the amount of illiteracy, the scarcity of money and 
teachers, there are many who advocate increasing the number of 
two-year (rudimentary) schools equipped to give the barest rudi¬ 
ments of reading and writing. The ordinary primary school course 
is four years and the superior primary school course is six years. 
The latter is found only in the larger municipalities and represents 
the required foundation for entrance into the better preparatory 
(secondary) schools. 

The subjects of study differ slightly in different districts and seem 
more advanced year for year than in this country. As given in 
the six-year primary course of the State of Chihuahua, they are as 
follows: Spanish, including reading, writing, grammar, etc.; arith¬ 
metic, empirical geometry; history; geography; objective studies; 
drawing; manual training and domestic science; music; physical 
training; civics; natural sciences; political economy; first aid to the 
sick. The recitation periods during the first two years average 
about 14 hours per week, during the next two years about 17 houis 
per week, and during the last two years 19 hours per week; about 
4,200 hours covering the six-year primary course. 


70 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


There are a number of private schools and convents that give 
primary instruction corresponding to the primary work in the public 
schools. These are under Government supervision and are required 
to maintain the same standards as the public schools. There is also 
effort on the part of the Government to encourage “ missionary 
schoolmasters’’ or voluntary teachers to establish schools covering 
the barest rudiments of reading and writing to aid in removing the 
great amount of illiteracy among the people. Some provision has, 
likewise, been made in the Federal District and a few of the larger 
cities to establish kindergartens. 

^/SECONDARY EDUCATION. 

The escuelas preparatorias or secondary schools of Mexico represent 
several types, as colegios, institutos, liceos and escuelas normalas, 
though the former name seems more fitting, since they are attended 
by only a small number of students, nearly all of whom are in prepara¬ 
tion for one of the professional schools of the university. They are 
modeled somewhat after the French lycees and especially planned as 
fitting schools of higher education. The normal schools, though 
offering somewhat similar academic courses, have a secondary object 
of preparing elementary teachers and offer during the last year of 
the course some pedagogical training. 

The courses in both the preparatory and normal schools cover 
from three to six years, the Federal standard being five years based 
on the completion of the six-year primary school. In fact the 
national preparatory course is of indefinite length, its diploma being 
conferred after the completion of a prescribed number of hours of 
instruction under certain specific groups of subjects. These subjects 
may be studied, under certain restrictions, in any order desired by 
the student and as rapidly as he sees fit. The student is limited to 30 
class hours per week, but may thus complete the entire course in a 
period of three years. Five years, however, is the usual time, and 
with slower progress six years may be required. Elsewhere we have 
given the schedule of a typical preparatory school. 

Either as separate or affiliated with other preparatory schools is 
an increasing number of secondary commercial, industrial, engineer¬ 
ing, and agricultural schools or courses. These schools are of a 
more practical nature than the usual type of preparatory schools 
and aim to meet the practical needs of the community in which they 
are located. They are found mostly in the Federal District and the 
more advanced states and cities. They usually require for entrance 
completion of the six-grade primary and cover two (industrial), 
three (agricultural, commercial), or two-four-six (engineering) year 
courses. In most cases these schools prepare for superior instruction 
in the same field but not in others. There is a present tendency to 


MEXICO. 


71 


place all secondary education under the direct control of the uni¬ 
versity council and the Federal department of education. Since 
1916 all national preparatory schools are authorized to charge the 
uniform fee of $5 per month per pupil. 

HIGHER EDUCATION. 

There are at present in the Republic of Mexico some State universi¬ 
ties and professional schools other than the National University of 
Mexico City, as the medical, engineering, and law schools of 
Guadalajara; schools of medicine, law, and music (recently organized 
as a university) of Merida; the State university, comprising schools 
of law, medicine, engineering, agriculture, fine arts, natural science, 
and a normal department, of Michoacan at Morelia; schools of law and 
medicine at Monterey, Puebla, and San Luis Potosi; a school of medi¬ 
cine at Oaxaca; a school of fine arts at Queretara; a school of law at 
Toluca; and the naval academy at Vera Cruz. However, most of 
higher education is centralized in the professional schools of the Fed¬ 
eral District and the National University of Mexico City as organ¬ 
ized in 1910 (founded in 1553). The National University comprises 
schools of law (five-year course), medicine and pharmacy (four and 
six years), dentistry (three years), engineering (two-four-five years); 
advanced studies comparable to arts and sciences of this country 
(two-three-five-six years), chemical science (two-three-four years), 
fine arts, music and theatrical. 

Students can enter the School of Advanced Studies from the 
national preparatory schools and on completing the lower two-year 
course in any line receive a diploma as academic professor in that 
line (subject). Similarly, a three-year course, embracing one 
principal and three subordinate subjects, leads to the degree of 
of university professor and qualifies the possessor for instructor in 
the university in those subjects; a five-year course, with three 
additional subjects chosen by the student on approval of the faculty, 
leads to the degree in those subjects of university master; and a 
six-year course with five additional subjects, two principal assigned 
by the faculty and three subordinate chosen by the student, leads to 
the degree of university doctor in the subjects studied. These 
•courses offer a wide range of subjects that may be combined in 
various groups, but each course in practice is more specialized than 
the corresponding course in our colleges of liberal arts. 

The university extension work is carried on through the faculty of 
advanced studies, and other functions of encouraging secondary and 
higher education among the people is centered here. According to 
the regulation of 1916 the higher institutions of learning, like the 
preparatory schools, charge tuition of $5 per month. 


72 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


Entrance examinations to all these faculties are based on com¬ 
pletion of the national preparatory schools; and the first two years in 
several faculties of the university continue preparatory studies, 
followed by two, three, or four years of strictly professional subjects. 
At present the courses of instruction of the different faculties do not 
lead to the usual degrees but to special diplomas certifying that the 
courses of instruction offered by the respective faculties have been 
completed. The different schools of the National University of 
Mexico City are in the main similar to such institutions elsewhere 
and do not call for separate treatment. The graduates are from two 
to four years younger than the graduates of corresponding professional 
schools in the United States. The teaching and instruction is given 
more to theory and less to practice and initiative than in the corres¬ 
ponding conditions in this country. 

There is one faculty, however, worthy of special mention. It is 
unique in schools of advanced studies, though not well attended nor 
thoroughly appreciated. It is entitled the “National faculty of ad¬ 
vanced studies” (Facultad Nacional de Altos Estudios) comparable 
to the college of arts and science of the United States. It offers an 
extensive cultural course under three main divisions: (1) Humanities, 
(2) exact science, and (3) political economy. Its aim seems to be to 
provide opportunity for liberal education and to furnish suitable 
training for teachers of preparatory schools, normal schools, profes¬ 
sional schools, and universities. 

QUALIFICATION OF TEACHERS. 

The aim is to require of all teachers in the primary and secondary 
schools a normal-school diploma or graduation from one of the higher 
professional schools, but in practice, owing to the limited number of 
qualified teachers, it is far from being realized. In many States 
wherein the illiteracy is high, rudimentary schools are established 
and persons of tender years who can read and write are sought to 
teach others to read and write. The wages of teachers are low as 
compared with corresponding positions in this country and by no 
means uniform, varying in the primary schools from $20 to $60 per 
month; in a specially favored position a principal may receive $100 
per month. In both secondary and higher education many of the 
teachers are employed by subjects and devote but a small part of their 
time to teaching, while legitimately engaged in another occupation, 
profession, trade, or business. This practice prevents the develop¬ 
ment of the teaching spirit so strong and helpful in many countries. 

The present administration has been especially interested in 
reducing illiteracy among the masses and in carrying the rudiments of 
education and a common language to the native people. For this 
purpose a congress of educators was called to meet in Mexico Citv 



MEXICO, 


73 


September, 1922, to devise ways and means of procuring “missionary 
schoolmasters’’ and of equipping them with textbooks and supplies to 
carry on the needed education among the natives. Another interest 
has been to collect and to preserve native culture, as well as to 
establish libraries and furnish them with the classics of the masters 
printed in Spanish. 


Schedule of a typical national preparatory school (classical course )—“ Institute Cientifico 

y Literario, Chihuahua .” 1 


Subjects. 

Ni 

First 

grade. 

imber of 

Second 

grade. 

hours pc 

Third 

grade. 

sr subjecl 

Fourth 

grade. 

per gra 

Fifth 

grade. 

ie. 

Total. 

Mathematics. 

240 

240 




480 

Spanish (grammar). 


80 

40 

120 


240 

Geography. 



120 


120 

History—Mexican and universal. 





240 

240 

Greek roots. 


120 




120 

English. 


120 




120 

French. 

120 

120 




240 

Physics (class). 

240 



240 

Physics (laboratory). 



120 



120 

Chemistry (class). 




240 


240 

Chemistry (laboratory). 




240 


240 

Cosmography. 



120 



' 120 

Botany. 




120 


120 

Anatomy, physiology, zoology. 





120 

120 

Psychology. 





120 

120 

Logic. 





120 

120 

Literature. 




120 

120 

240 

Brawing . 

80 

40 

40 



160 

Physical training. 

120 

120 

80 

80 

120 

520 

Music.- 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

300 

Total per year (grade) and course. 

620 

900 

700 

1,100 

eoo 

4,220 

Average hours per week per grade—;. 

15]- 

22] 

17] 

27] 

22] 

21 


i Besides the classical course, the preparatory school offers a normal course of five years and a commercial 
course of three years. Since the time element is not stressed, students are able by taking 30 or more hours 
per week to complete the five-years' course in three. Courses vary but slightly in the different national 
preparatory schools, all aiming to fit for the university, and are supervised by Government inspectors. 


Schedule of typical primary course of study , Chihuahua, Mexico. 



Whole number of hours per subject per grade. 

Subjects. 

First 

grade. 

Second 

grade. 

Third 

grade. 

Fourth 

grade. 

Fifth 

grade. 

Sixth 

grade. 

Total. 

fimnich rAnriinor writing, grammar. 

133 

167. 

100 

133 

150 

150 

833 

.Arithmetic . 

133 

167 

100 

133 

150 

150. 

833 


40 

83 

60 

80 

80 

80 

423 

T-Hq t.nrv . 


50 

80 

80 

80 

133 

423 

rjpncrrfinhv . 


50 

80 

80 

80 

80 

370 


133 

167 

100 




400 

T)rnw?no r . 

66 

66 

80 

106 

90 

90 

498 

Mnnnfl.1 f.rn.ininpr . 

66 

83 

80 

80 

60 

60 

429 

Music . 

40 

40 

60 

60 

40 

40 

280 

f.rnininp’ . . 

66 

66 

100 

80 

60 

60 

432 




60 

80 

50 

50 

240 





133 

150 

150 

433 






50 

50 

100 






40 

40 

80 










677 

939 

900 

1,045 

1,080 

1,133 

5,774 

innrnYimatp hours DPT Week. 

17 

24 

23 

26 

26 

28 

i 144 










^Average, 24. 


























































































74 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


Steps in the education system of Mexico. 


School or grade. 

Proximate ages. 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

10 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 









— 






Preparatory schools (escuelas preparatorias).. 

Engineering schools (secondary grade). 




1 














l... 








Normal schools. 

Pphnnls r»f cnmmprpA and t">q<5inA<5s 








1 ■ 










'' 

V- 







_ 


/.. 









University school of medicine. 

University school of engineering and applied 
sciences. 

University school of chemical science. 

\ 











. i . 




l * - 
















1 











. 


j 


























! 


J 













University school of law. 

1 























- . 


University school of agriculture . 














University school of advanced studies. 

V 










. 

__ 


I.. 













University school of dentistry. 

1 ’ 










































1 1 


EDUCATION IN CUBA. 

GENERAL STATEMENT. 

The new Republic of Cuba (1902), the largest and most western 
of the West India Islands, has an area of 44,215 square miles and a. 
population of 2,889,004, an average of 60 to the square mile. The 
inhabitants are about 74 per cent white, mostly Spanish or of Spanish 
descent, and 26 per cent colored, mostly negro or negro descent. The 
language of the country is Spanish and the religion dominantly 
Roman Catholic, though there is complete separation of Church and 
State and other religions are freely practiced. The prevailing climate 
is hot and dry, though there is abundance of rainfall, which is not 
evenly distributed throughout the year and the country. There are 
2,500 miles of coast line where the heat remains continuously high in 
summer but mild and balmy in winter. Inland, owing to the moun¬ 
tainous condition of the country (the altitude varying from 3,000 to 
8,400 feet), the climate is milder, and the healthful sea breezes make 
it quite enjoyable during all seasons of the year. The temperature 
scarcely falls below 50° Fahrenheit in winter nor rises above 86° in 
summer, but the average winter temperature of the entire island is 
about 72° and of summer 82.5°. The average annual rainfall varies 
in different localities from 40 to 160 inches. The hottest months are 
July and August, and the wet season from July to September. 

Prior to the conditions which led to the establishment of the 
Republic, education was mostly private, limited in extent, and of a 




























































































CUBA. 


75 


backward nature. The illiteracy was placed in 1899 at 65 per cent, 
the number of schools 200, and the number of pupils 4,000. In 1900, 
under the new regime, the schools had increased to 312 and the number 
of pupils to 34,597. Since the reorganization of the education system 
m 1899, modified and readjusted by the school laws of 1909 and 1915. 
there has been encouraging advancement made in the education 
s} r stem and practice. In 1919, just 20 years after the Treaty of Paris 
and the beginning of the new regime, the number of schools had in¬ 
creased to over 4,000, the number of teachers to 6,151, and thenumber 
of pupils to 334,671. The short administration of the island by the 
United States Government (1898-1902) left its imprint on the educa¬ 
tion system, which, especially in primary (elementary) education, 
conforms more nearly to the education system of the United States 
\ than any other Latin-American country. 

Public education is directed and supported by the Government. 
It is secular, free, and complsory from 7 to 13, inclusive. It covers 
the usual divisions of primary, secondary, and superior or professional. 
The unit of school administration is the municipality, which includes 
the urban community and the contiguous rural territory. The com¬ 
plete urban primary (elementary) school covers a course of eight 
years and may be preceded in the cities by an efficient kindergarten 
school. In rural communities the primary school covers but four 
years. There are six Provinces in the Republic, and each Province is 
provided, at the capital city, with at least one Government secondary 
school under the title “ Institute de Segunda Ensenanza Provincial/’ 
which, under the present conditions, covers a course of four years, 
based for entrance on an eight years’ primary, and preparing, on 
examination, for the bachelor’s degree and entrance to the profes¬ 
sional schools of the university. There are also a number of officially 
recognized private secondary schools (colegios) which conform more 
closely to the Latin American type, and as an annex to each pro¬ 
vincial institute is a Government normal school of somewhat equiva¬ 
lent academic grade to the secondary schools. 

SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION. 

At the head of the public-school system of Cuba is the secretary of 
public instruction and fine arts, a cabinet officer appointed by the 
President of the Republic. He is intrusted with the execution of 
all the laws of public instruction in the Republic, the inspection of 
universities, the administrative instruction of other higher institu¬ 
tions of learning, of institutions of secondary instruction, of normal 
schools, of arts and trades and other special schools, and of all mat¬ 
ters pertaining to education. 

Under the secretary of public instruction is the superintendent of 
public instruction, who, together with the six provincial superin- 


76 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


tendents of public instruction, one for each Province, constitute the 
national board of superintendence, charged with the function of 
school administration and supervision of education throughout the 
island. There are a number of school inspectors who function in the 
usual manner of such officers: A Federal school inspector acting in 
conjunction with the secretary of public instruction; six provincial 
school inspectors acting for the different Provinces; and municipal 
school inspectors, one for each municipality or local district. 

The next and lowest division of school administration are the 
boards of education of the municipalities, the local school unit. Each 
board is composed of seven members elected by the voters of the 
district. To be eligible to membership on the board one must be a 
citizen, resident of the municipality, head of a family, and able to read 
and write. He can not hold any other Government office at the 
same time with the exception of that of professor of secondary or 
higher education. The local school inspector is empowered to act 
with the board of education in an advisory capacity. 

SCHOOL YEAR. 

The school year extends from the 1st of September to the 31st of 
the following August; the first school session begins on the second 
Monday of September and ends on the Friday before the 25th of 
December; the second term begins on the first Monday after the 
1st of January and ends on the Friday before Holy Week; the third 
term begins on the first Monday after Holy Week and ends when 36 
weeks have been completed. The school month is composed of four 
weeks, the school week of five days (Monday to Friday, inclusive), 
the school day of five hours exclusive of recess periods in all grades 
except the first, wherein it is four hours. The university year covers 
eight months, from the 1st of October to the 31st of May. The daily 
sessions begin at 7 in the morning and close at 5, in the case of peda¬ 
gogy 6, in the afternoon. In secondary education the length of the 
school year is also eight months, covering a period similar to that 
of the university. 

PRIMARY EDUCATION. 

Great improvement has been made in primary education in the 
past 20 years, and school attendance has increased manyfold. There 
are two types of primary schools—those provided for the rural dis¬ 
tricts, covering a course of four years, and those for the urban dis¬ 
tricts, covering courses of six and eight years. It is the aim of the 
Government to establish a rural school in every community where 
there are sufficient children to justify. In isolated situations or com¬ 
munities wherein sufficient children are not found to justify the es¬ 
tablishment of a school, traveling teachers ere provided to carry the 


CUBA. 


77 

rudiments of education to the homes and the individual children. 
Promotion from grade to grade in the rural schools depends on the 
judgment of the individual teachers subject to review by the district 
inspector. Completing the four years’ work satisfies the compulsory 
school law. 

Urban schools are found only in the larger and more important 
urban communities; the smaller municipalities with the contiguous 
territory provide for rural schools only. As in other Latin American 
countries, boys and girls are educated in separate schools, except in 
communities where there are not sufficient children to justify the 
establishment of two schools, when a single mixed school will be pro¬ 
vided. The teachers of all girls’ schools and mixed schools are women 
only. The subjects of the rural schools are Spanish language, reading, 
writing, arithmetic, nature studies, play activity and singing, notions 
of geography, history, hygiene, civics, morals and conduct, agricul¬ 
ture, and drawing and manual training. The eight years’ course of 
the urban school is required for entrance on secondary education, 
though it is still possible to obtain full entrance into the secondary 
schools on examination after completing the sixth-grade primary 
school. Thq^ubjects of the eighth-grade primary school are the same 
and more advanced work on the subjects of the rural schools, with the 
addition of English, general geography, notions of general history, 
physiology and hygiene, geometry, natural science, including physics 
and chemistry, and physical education. 

PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. 

The normal school law of 1915 provides for two normal schools, one 
for men and one for women, to be located at Habana, and the capitals 
of the Provinces of Pinar del Rio, Matanzas, Santa Clara, Camaguey, 
and Oriente, where instruction is free. These schools are established 
as annexes to the provincial institutes, or secondary schools. All 
teachers were required to qualify under the above law, but provision 
was made to retain teachers who had duly qualified under the law of 
1909. Thus about half of the teachers are those who had qualified 
under the old law. 

The normal-school course covers four years and requires for en¬ 
trance that the student be at least 14 years of age, of good health and 
moral character, physically qualified to exercise the functions of a 
teacher, and an entrance examination covering in special cases six 
and in others eight years’ elementary course. Each year the 50 appli¬ 
cants best qualified on competitive examination are admitted. The 
subjects of study are as follows: Spanish language and literature; 
arithmetic, algebra, geometry; physics, chemistry, natural history, 
and agriculture; English, and French or German; drawing, penman- 
54894 0 —23-6 


78 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


ship, elementary modeling; anatomy, physiology, hygiene, physical 
education,games, and sports; music, manual work, and special kinder¬ 
garten studies, (elective); pedagogy, logic, psychology, methodology, 
school hygiene, and practice. 

On graduation the student receives the diploma of normal teacher, 
or of normal kindergarten teacher. Professors of the normal schools 
are appointed by the President of the Republic and must be over 21 
years of age, possess the degree of doctor of pedagogy of Habana 
University, or of superior teacher granted by the normal schools of 
Guanabacoa and Habana, or of a Spanish normal school granted 
before 1899, if the applicant is a Cuban; or an analogous degree to 
these, granted by some recognized foreign institution if the applicant 
is a foreigner. Only normal graduates or professionally trained teach¬ 
ers can be placed in permanent positions; others may be employed 
temporarily in the absence of professionally trained candidates, but 
they can not receive permanent employment. Cuban teachers are 
given the preference in all schools, but well-prepared foreigners, 
especially those from the United States, frequently find a ready 
welcome. 

SECONDARY EDUCATION. 9 

Secondary education is more closely related to higher and pro¬ 
fessional education than to primary or elementary education. It is 
offered in the six public provincial institutes (free except the annual 
matriculation fee of $12.50) and in a number of private colegios. To 
enter the public secondary schools, the pupil must be 13 years of age 
and prove through an examination that he has completed the eight 
years primary school, or in special cases the six years primary school. 
The secondary school covers a course of four years leading on gradua¬ 
tion to the degree of bachiller en ciencias y letras (bachelor of science 
and letters) and fitting for entrance to the university and professional 
schools. The subjects of study are: Spanish, English or French, geog¬ 
raphy, history, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, phy¬ 
sics, chemistry, natural history, civics, elements of sociology, logic, 
and psychology. Physical education is compulsory throughout the 
course. The institutes are authorized to make adjustments of the 
courses to meet local needs. 

HIGHER EDUCATION. 

Higher education and professional instruction are offered in the 
University of Habana, founded in 1721, containing the faculties of 
arts and science, medicine and pharmacy, and law. In November, 
1919, there were 2,272 students enrolled in the university, who were 
divided as follows: 357 in the faculty of liberal arts and science; 
458 in the faculty of law; 1,457 in the faculty of medicine and phar- 


CUBA. 


79 


macy. The three faculties above mentioned are again divided as 
follows: The faculty of letters (arts) and science into the schools of 
letters and philosophy, of pedagogy, of engineering, including elec¬ 
tricity, architecture, agronomy; the faculty of medicine and pharmacy 
into the schools of medicine, of pharmacy, of dental surgery, and of 
veterinary medicine; the faculty of law into the schools of civil law, 
public law, and notary. 

Entrance to any faculty of the university is based on an age limit 
of at least 17 and graduation from the four years’ course of the 
secondary school as indicated above. The university courses are of 
different lengths and offer advanced and professional degrees only. 
The degrees of doctor of pedagogy, letters and philosophy, mathe¬ 
matics, physico-chemical science, and natural science are granted on 
a three years’ course, 15 years of schooling. The course in medicine 
requires six years; pharmacy, dentistry, veterinary, midwife, and 
nursing three each; public law three; civil law four; notary two; 
chemical and agricultural experts and engineers three and four years; 
electrical engineers four, civil engineers, architects, and overseers or 
master workmen five years each. 

FORWARD MOVEMENT. 

The progress in education for the past 20 or more years has been 
exceedingly encouraging. New schools have been established in all 
parts of the Republic. The system of school administration has been 
simplified and strengthened and the school buildings greatly improved. 
Special attention has been given to the training of teachers, and the 
supply, while not yet adequate, is immensely better and not far short 
of the demand. Up-to-date kindergartens have been established in 
several cities and a normal school for the training of kindergarten 
teachers was established at Habana and courses on the subject in 
other normal schools. Physical education was made a required sub¬ 
ject until the close of secondary education. School sanitation and 
child welfare were looked after by the school authorities and greatly 
improved. Industrial education has been greatly stimulated and 
agricultural education stressed in the schools, especially in the rural 
primary schools, in which it is made a compulsory subject. 

On March 19, 1923, at the Quinta de los Molinos, Habana, a short, 
practical course in agriculture was inaugurated for the school inspectors 
and teachers of the Province of Habana. The classes are held every 
Saturday morning from 8 to 10 o’clock and will continue to the end 
of the school year. The course opened with 105 present, 19 of whom 
were school inspectors, the remainder, rural and urban teachers, 
the majority of whom were women. The course was organized by 
the provincial school inspector and the instruction given by the head 
of the agronomical school of the university, Senor Jose L. Concepcion. 


80 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


Since the year 1914 agriculture has been included in the curriculum 
of the rural schools of Cuba, with the object of imparting to the chil¬ 
dren in rural districts a fundamental knowledge of farming and pre¬ 
paring them to become intelligent agriculturists. The purpose of 
the courses in agriculture as outlined by the board of superintendents 
is to teach the pupils to what sources of information an agriculturist 
may turn for knowledge, advice, or public aid; to foment and stimulate 
broad lines of rural economy; to increase the love of country life, 
animals, and plants. The instruction, while simple, is practical and 
thorough as to fundamental principles. 

Each rural school is required to have a field devoted to agricultural 
experiments which the children shall cultivate themselves under the 
instruction of the teachers, and this program naturally necessitates 
the possession of considerable practical knowledge of agriculture by 
the teachers. The school gardens established for this purpose are 
provided with the necessary light-weight garden implements—spade, 
rake, hoe, fork, etc.—and the fundamental principles of gardening 
are taught. According to the latest statistics (1921), the school 
gardens under cultivation were 396, as follows: In the Province of 
Habana, 109; Pinar del Rio, 102; Matanzas, 83; Santa Clara, 49; 
Oriente, 43; Camaguey, 10. Since 1921 much attention has been 
given to the training of teachers in the essentials of farming, cropping, 
gardening, weeding, irrigating, care and cultivation of fruit and 
other trees in order to make their agricultural instruction more 
efficient. 

Steps in the education system of Cuba. 


Proximate ages. 


School or grade. 


Rural primary school. 
Urban primary school. 


8 

9 

10 






Secondary school (instituto da segunda i 

ensenanza).!. I. 

Habana University: Pedagogy, arts and 

science, mathematics, etc.! J. 

Pharmacy, dentistry, veterinary, etc... I 

Medicine. j.. J.I 

Civil law, electrical engineering, etc.... i.!. . . I 

Civil engineering, architecture, etc. !.. J.’ T 


LA 


CENTRAL AMERICA. 

Central America comprises the Republics of Guatemala, Honduras, 
Nicaragua, Salvador, and Costa Rica; the new Republic of Panama 
has been added to the study for the sake of convenience. In an 
early day (1524) Guatemala alone comprised all the territory now 
known as Central America; later (1823) the Government of Guate¬ 
mala becoming free of both Spain and Mexico, a constituent congress 


















































CENTRAL AMERICA. 


81 


of the territory set up an independent nation under the title of the 
Central American Federation, embracing the present States of Costa 
Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Salvador. The first 
President of the Federation was Gen. Jose Arce. The union did not 
prove practical, the States seceding one by one to form independent 
republics, and within 20 years the union had been completely 
dissolved. 

After 60 or more years, the small republics, with so many interests 
in common, began anew the struggle for unification of interests and 
some form of central organization. In December, 1907, at the 
Central American Peace Conference, held in Washington, there was 
established an international court of justice, to continue in operation 
for 10 years; also an international bureau at Guatemala to promote 
industry, commerce, and agriculture of the Central American Repub¬ 
lics. In 1921 an effort was made to revive the Central American 
Union by a treaty signed at San Jose, Costa Rica. This treaty has 
been ratified by the Governments of Guatemala, Honduras, and 
Salvador, and in accordance with its provisions a constitutional 
convention was assembled in Tegucigalpa August 20, 1921. A con¬ 
stitution was drafted and ratified by the three countries represented 
at the convention, resulting in the formation of the Republic of 
Central America, composed of the above-named countries. 

Under the new Government each State retains its autonomy and 
independence in the management and direction of its internal affairs 
and will carry on governmental functions not specifically delegated 
to the new Federation. The constitution of the central Republic 
places the executive authority in a Federal council, composed of one 
delegate and one alternate from each State, elected by popular vote, 
for a term of five years. The delegates choose from their number a 
president and vice president for a term of one year, the president not 
being eligible to reelection the following year. The legislative power 
is vested in a Senate and Chamber of Deputies; the former consisting 
of three members from each State, appointed by the respective legis¬ 
latures, and one from the Federal District of the Republic; the 
latter is composed of one representative and one alternate, elected by 
popular vote, for every 100,000 inhabitants or fraction thereof in 
excess of 50,000. Provision is made for a supreme court and such 
inferior courts as may be created by law. The supreme court is 
composed of seven judges and three alternates, appointed by the 
Senate from a list of 21 candidates, 7 from each State. Not all of 
the Central American Republics have ratified the above Federation 
and constitution, and the later withdrawal of Salvador and Guatemala 
from the Federation will prevent its going into effect. 

On the invitation of the Government of the United States, Decem¬ 
ber 4, 1922, an important conference on Central American affairs, 


82 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


participated in by the Governments of Guatemala, Salvador, Hon¬ 
duras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, was held in the Hall of the 
Americas at the Pan American Union building, Washington, D. C. 
After prolonged deliberations the conference resulted in the approval, 
February 7, 1923, of a general treaty of peace and amity, 11 conven¬ 
tions, and 3 protocols. The conventions covered the following: 
The establishment of an international Central American tribunal, of 
international commissions of inquiry, of free trade, of stations for 
agricultural experiments and industries, of permanent Central Ameri¬ 
can commissions, unification of protective laws for workmen and 
laborers, practice of the liberal professions, preparation of projects of 
electoral legislation, reciprocal exchange of Central American students, 
extradition convention, and convention for the limitation of arma¬ 
ments. 

All education in Central America is under the direct control of the 
individual republics. Here, as in other Latin American countries, 
the principal thought in the study has been to present such informa¬ 
tion as will be found most valuable to the student and teacher in 
whom the travel spirit is large. With the single exception of Brazil, 
the language of which is Portuguese, the official language of all other 
Latin American countries is Spanish. 

EDUCATION IN GUATEMALA. 

GENERAL STATEMENT. 

Guatemala is second in size and first in population of the Republics 
of Central America, including the new Republic of Panama, pre¬ 
sented with the Central American Republics for the sake of con¬ 
venience. The area of Guatemala is 48,290 square miles, and its 
present population 2,119,165, or about 44 per square mile. The 
population is composed principally of native Indians of a high type; 
fully 60 per cent are pure-blood Indians; the remainder are chiefly 
mestizos or mixtures of Indians and white races. The whites or 
descendants of Europeans, mostly Spanish, are few and dwell prin¬ 
cipally in Guatemala City, the capital, and other principal cities. 
Much the larger proportion of whites dwell in the capital. 

Guatemala is the most northern of the Central American Republics, 
lying within the Tropics between 13° and 18° north latitude. In 
the main it is bounded on the north and west by Mexico, on the south 
by the Pacific, and on the east by Salvador, Honduras, Caribbean 
Sea, and British Honduras. With the exception of its narrow but 
long strip of coast line on the Pacific and the shorter but broader 
strip of marshy coast line on the Caribbean Sea, where conditions are 
genuinely tropical, the climate of the large inland plateau regions 
with an elevation of from 4,000 to 11,500 feet above sea level, is 
pleasant and healthful. Many of the mountain peaks rise still higher, 


CENTRAL AMERICA. 


83 


as Fuego, 12,570 feet; Tacana, 13,300 feet; Tajumulco, 13,800 feet. 
The city of Guatemala (population 125,000), where most of the white 
inhabitants live, is on an elevation of 4,877 feet above sea level. It 
is said to be a very beautiful city, surrounded by green-clad hills 
and imposing volcanoes, with a climate of perpetual spring. Quezal- 
tenango, the third city in size (population 25,000), is on a still higher 
plateau, elevation 7,351 feet above sea level. It is situated in a rich 
farming community in which the chief productions are corn, wheat, 
and, on lower elevations, coffee. There are a number of active 
volcanoes, and serious earthquakes are quite frequent. 

Education is free and compulsory for all children between the ages 
of 6 and 14. In 1922 there were 2,393 public primary schools and 
373 private primary schools, a total of 2,766 establishments for pri¬ 
mary education. The number of pupils enrolled in primary schools 
was 82,997; in secondary schools, 4,715; in higher education, 482. 
During the year (1922) 142 new primary schools were opened, and 
the pay of school-teachers was increased. 

In the acquisition, construction, and repair of school buildings a 
total of 4,133,548 pesos was expended. In addition, there was spent 
for school supplies a total of 157,897 pesos ($24,941, United States 
currency). The completion of the school of agriculture, the national 
conservatory of music, a girls’ high school, and various schools for 
manual training were among the principal accomplishments of the 
year in the educational field. 

GENERAL GOVERNMENT. 

The Governments of the Central American Republics are quite 
similar throughout, and a brief outline of the Government of Guate¬ 
mala will suffice for all. The legislative power is vested in a National 
Assembly, consisting of representatives (one for every 20,000 inhab¬ 
itants) chosen by universal suffrage for four years, and a Council of 
State of 13 members, partly elected by the National Assembly, 
partly appointed by the President of the Republic. The President 
is elected by direct vote of the people for a term of six years. Besides 
the legislative and executive branches, there is the usual judicial 
branch of government. There are also 22 administrative depart¬ 
ments, at the head of each is a jefe 'politico appointed by the President 
of the Republic. The departments are subdivided into districts 
and municipalities. At the head of the district is an olcaldcj at the 
head of the municipality is a corregidor, or mayor. 

SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION. 

The department of public instruction is one of the seven cabinet 
departments, having charge of all educational affairs of the Republic. 
The secretary or minister of public instruction, appointed to the 


84 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


cabinet position by the President of the Republic, administers primary 
secondary, and higher schools, including the national university and 
other educational institutions maintained by the Government. Next 
in order to the minister of public instruction is the inspector general, 
chief of the staff of school inspectors. There are two technical 
inspectors, one for day and one for night schools, and a special 
inspector of school hygiene for the Department of Guatemala. Prior 
to 1921 each of the 22 departments had as its chief .school officer 
an inspector, but in that year, for the sake of economy, the number 
of departmental school inspectors was reduced to nine by combining 
two or three departments, suitably located, under the management 
of a single inspector. 

The national board of education, through whom all public educa¬ 
tion is managed, is composed of the following members: The minister 
of public instruction, the inspector general of education, the secre¬ 
tary of inspection, the inspector of technical education, the inspector 
of technical night schools, and the 9 departmental inspectors. Each 
department has a departmental board consisting of six members. 
At the capital, in the Department of Guatemala, the departmental 
board is made up as follows: The inspector general, the secretary of 
inspection, the inspector of technical education at the capital, the 
inspector of technical education in night schools at the capital, the 
departmental inspector of public instruction, and the inspector of 
school hygiene for the department of Guatemala. At the beginning 
unit of education there is a local school board, but all education 
is highly centralized, and most of the initiative has its beginning 
higher up. 

PRIMARY EDUCATION. 

Primary education is divided into two sections—the lower or ordi- 
nary primary school, covering the first three years, and the upper or 
complementary primary school, covering the next three years 
(fourth, fifth, and sixth years). At the close of each division there is 
a public examination required for promotion to the next higher grade. 
Graduation from the complete primary course of six years is required 
for entrance into the national institutes and normal schools. The 
subjects in the lower and upper (complementary) primary grades are 
here given in parallel columns to show the slight differences in the 
two schools. 


Lower Primary School. Upper Primary (Compe'e- 

mentary) School. 

Subjects. Main Divisions. Subjects. 

1. Morals.1 fl- Morals. 

2. Gentility.j l - Moral education .j 2. Civics. 

L3. Gentility. 




CENTRAL AMERICA. 


85 


Lower Primary School 
—Continued. 


Upper Primary (Complementary) 
School —Continued. 


Subjects. 


Main Divisions. 


3. Reading and notions of the 

mother tongue. 

4. Writing. 

5. Arithmetic. 

6. Geography of Guatemala. .-In. Intellectual ed- 

7. Object lessons. ucation. 

8. Notions of Guatemalan his¬ 

tory. 

9. Notions of agriculture. 

10. English.. 


11. Manual training. i 

12. Gymnasium.I III. Physical edu- 

13. Military exercises.| cation. 

14. Calisthenics. J 

15. Drawing."I IV. Artistic educa- 

16. Singing./ tion. 

17. Manual training or needle- i 

work. [V. Education espe- 

18. Domestic economy.I cially forgirls. 

19. Gardening.J 


Subjects. 

4. Progressive reading and 

composition. 

5. Spanish grammar. 

6. Writing. 

7. Arithmetic. 

8. Geography of Guatemala, 

Central America, uni¬ 
versal. 

9. History, Guatemalan, Cen¬ 

tral American, universal. 

10. Natural science, notions of 

zoology, botany, miner¬ 
alogy, and geology. 

11. Experimental science, no¬ 

tions of mechanics, phys¬ 
ics, chemistry. 

12. Hygiene. 

13. Bookkeeping. 

14. English. 

1 15. Gymnasium. 

16. Military exercises. 

17. Calisthenics. 

f 18. Vocal music. 

\l9. Drawing, linear, natural. 

{ 20. Manual training. 

21. Domestic economy. 

22. Gardening. 


The time element is not given, but since the stress in promotions 
is placed on yearly and final examinations, the time put upon a sub¬ 
ject by the pupil in Guatemala is considered less important than in 
the United States. The lower primary school satisfies the compul¬ 
sory feature of the law, and the upper primary or complementary 
school is found only in cities and more favored municipalities. 


SECONDARY EDUCATION. 


Secondary education is offered in the Institutos Nacionales (national 
institutes). The complete course covers five years and leads on 
graduation to the degree of Bachiller en Ciencias y Letras (bachelor 
of science and letters). Both the national institutes and the normal 
schools, which are usually found as annexes to the institutes, require 
for full admission completion of the six years' primary course. The 
above bachelor’s degree, cow r ng 11 years of schooling, is sufficient 
for entrance to all faculties of the university. There are eight 
national institutes, five for boys and three for girls. Each of the 
national institutes has a normal school annexed, and usually com¬ 
mercial sections are also connected with the institutes. Besides the 
normal-school annexes, there are four separate normal schools—one 
for boys, two for girls, and a special normal institute in the capital 


















86 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


for the training of Indian teachers, probably the only one of its type 
in Latin America. 

There are a number of private secondary schools, usually under the 
designation of colegios, some of which are subsidized by the Govern¬ 
ment, and all must comply with the Government requirements for 
promotion of their pupils. Trade schools for boys, and a few for 
girls, are found in different parts of the Republic. The courses are 
adapted to the practical activities of life and not intended as prepa¬ 
ration for further study. The subjects of study of the national insti¬ 
tutes and normal schools, by years, are given below in parallel col¬ 
umns. As in the primary school, the time element has been omitted. 
The school year represents 36 weeks, 5 days per week, 6 hours per 
day, and 50 minutes per recitation period. 

PLAN OF STUDY. 

(For the secondary and normal education in the national institutes of the Republic of Guatemala.) 


National Institutes. 

First year. 

Spanish grammar, first course. 

English, first course. 

Arithmetic. 

Cosmography and physical geography. 
Geography and history of Central America. 
Lineal drawing. 

Second year. 

Spanish grammar, second course. 
English, second course. 

Algebra. 

Zoology. 

Descriptive geography. 

Physiology and hygiene. 

Third year. 

English, third course. 

Geometry and trigonometry. 

Botany and mineralogy. 

Ancient history, and that of the Middle 
Ages. 

French, first course. 

1'actics and military regulations. 1 

Fourth year. 

English, fourth course. 

French, second course. 

Philosophy, first course. 

Physics and mechanics. 

Modern history. 

Bookkeeping. 

Stenography. 

Fifth year. 

English, fifth course. 

French, third course. 

Philosophy, second course. 

Chemistry. 

General grammar and rhetoric. 

Civic instruction and political economy. 


Normal Schools. 

First year. 

Spanish grammar. 

English, first course. 

Arithmetic. 

Cosmography and physical geography. : 
Theoretical pedagogy. 

Zoology. 

Second year. 

Botany and mineralogy. 

English, second course. 

Algebra. 

Geography and history of Central Amer¬ 
ica. 

Practical pedagogy. 

French, first course. 

Tactics and military regulations. 1 

Third year. 

Physiology and hygiene. 

English, third course. 

Geometry. 

Descriptive geography. 

Practical pedagogy. 

Stenography. 

French, second course. 

Fourth year, 

English, fourth course. 

Methodology—theory and practice. 
Bookkeeping. 

Mechanics, physical and chemical. 
Universal history. 

Stenography. 

French, third course. 


1 Not for girls. 





CENTRAL AMERICA. 


87 


HIGHER EDUCATION. 

There is a National University of Guatemala at Guatemala City, 
founded in 1918, offering higher instruction in faculties or special 
-courses of law, medicine, pharmacy, mathematics, natural science, 
agronomy, philosophy and letters. There are also at the capital 
schools of engineering and polytechnics; the latter was formerly the 
military academy. The following institutions of secondary or higher 
•education are also situated at the capital: The National School of 
Agriculture, the National Aviation School, the School of Fine Arts, 
the Academy of Drawing and Painting, the National Conservatory of 
Music, the National School of Telegraphy, and the School of Com¬ 
merce. 

The Government is taking active steps (1923) for the establish¬ 
ment of .several new agricultural schools in suitable communities to 
give instruction in coffee, wheat, corn, fruit, etc., farming. The 
ministry of public instruction has ordered (1923) the establishment 
of a day nursery and kindergarten in the orphanage known as Casa 
•del Nino, where mothers may leave their babies with the assurance 
that they will be properly bathed, dressed, and fed during their 
absence. The Government is to aid in the establishment of other 
such nurseries in different parts of the city. There is also consider¬ 
able effort being made to extend rural education to the country 
districts. 

Steps in the education system of Guatemala . 


Proximate ages. 


School or grade. 


Lower primary school. 

Upper primary (complementary) school. 

Commercial and trade schools. 

Normal school. 

National Institute. 

School of pharmacy. 

School of law. 

School of medicine. 


'"1 1)111 


EDUCATION IN HONDURAS. 

GENERAL STATEMENT. 

The Republic of Honduras covers about 44,275 English square 
miles, and according to estimated figures (1921) contains 637,114 
inhabitants—male 314,528, female 322,586—or 12.5 to the square 
mile. The inhabitants are chiefly Indians with an admixture of 
Spanish, and on the north coast are many Negroes. 

According to the school census of 1921, there were 88,453 children 
between the ages of 7 and 15—48,697 boys and 39,756 girls. Of 
these, 39,000, or 44 per cent, had received some education, and 
49,453, or 56 per cent, were wholly illiterate. 





















































88 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


The number of primary schools in operation during the year 1921 
were 922, of which 905 were public, 17 private, 531 urban, and 391 
rural. There were four normal schools, one for boys and one for 
girls, in Tegucigalpa, one for girls in Santa Rosa de Copan, and a 
mixed school in La Esperanza. Besides these, there are normal 
courses in special departments of the colegios in Santa Rosa de Copan, 
Santa Barbara, and Juticalpa. These public normal schools and 
normal courses enrolled (1920) 247 boys and 240 girls. There were 
(1921) five Government secondary schools—El Instituto Nacional of 
Tegucigalpa, El Colegio Nacional de Segunda Ensenanza in Santa 
Rosa de Copan, El Colegio La Independencia in Santa Barbara, El 
Colegio Leon Alvarado in Comayagua, and El Colegio La Fraternidad 
in Justicalpa. These schools had (1920) 71 professors and 259 
students. In 1921 there were 192 pupils enrolled in commercial 
courses, offered in the special school of commerce at Tegucigalpa, or 
in commercial departments of the normal schools and colegios. 
From these commercial courses 27 pupils graduated in 1920, of whom 
9 were girls. In 1921 there were recorded in higher education the 
Central University of Honduras at Tegucigalpa, 32 professors and 
98 students, the latter being as follows: Forty in the law school, 
37 in the medical school, 21 in the school of engineering. 

SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION. 

At the head of the public-school system is the Minister of Public 
Instruction, a member of the cabinet, who is entrusted with enforcing 
the laws relating to public education, supervises elementary schools, 
the national institute and school of commerce (industrial and agri¬ 
cultural education comes under the department of promotion, public 
works, and agriculture), and has charge of the national library. 
Under the Minister of Public Instruction, with immediate charge of 
primary education, is the director general of primary instruction. 
He is assisted by a board of nine primary school inspectors, about one 
for every two Departments. The governors of the Departments (17 
in all) have charge of primary education in their respective districts, 
and the mayors of the municipalities are in direction of local school 
affairs. The governors are appointed by the President, and accord¬ 
ing to a recent provision the Federal school inspector of the Depart¬ 
ment has been given the immediate direction of the schools of the 
district. 

PRIMARY EDUCATION. 

The primary schools are urban and rural. The urban schools are 
of three types—those of £ve grades (years), those of four grades, and 
those of three grades. The rural schools have only two grades. Of 
the 922 primary schools, 370 were for boys only, 282 for girls, and 
270 mixed schools. Only the schools offering a five-years’ course 


CENTRAL AMERICA. 


89 


pie pare for full entrance into the better colegios and normal schools. 
Every pupil passing the five grades is given a “final certificate of 
primary studies.” Examinations are held in the last fortnight of 
the school year by a board of three examiners. No one pupil can be 
examined for more than 10 minutes. 

Primary education is free, secular, and by law compulsory (though 
not enforced) from 7 to 15. The subjects of study and recitation 
periods are given in the weekly schedule presented herewith. The 
usual length of the school year is 10 months, extending from Feb¬ 
ruary 1 to November 30. 

SECONDARY EDUCATION. 

Besides the strictly secondary schools of the Government—the 
national colegios and instituto, mentioned above—there is a less- 
advanced type of secondary education found in the normal schools 
and in the school of commerce in Tegucigalpa. The complete course 
in the instituto and colegios covers five years; in the normal school, 
four years. The matriculation in 1920 in all these secondary schools 
was given as 938, equivalent to about 1 per cent of the school census 
and 2.6 per cent of the primary school enrollment. But few girls are 
found in secondary education outside of the normal schools, in which 
they represent about half. The secretary of public instruction 
made special mention in his report (1919-20) of the fact that seven 
of the pupils in one of the Government secondary schools were girls. 
In 1920 there were 27 graduates from the commercial courses, of 
which 9 were girls. For entrance into one of the secondary schools 
the pupil must present a certificate of graduation from the Govern¬ 
ment primary school or pass the entrance examination. Graduates 
from the secondary schools, instituto, and colegios receive the title of 
bachiller en ciencias y letras; graduates of the normal courses and 
schools receive a diploma as professor of primary education. The 
former title may be met on 10 years of schooling and the latter on 9. 

The length of the secondary school year is similar to that of the 
primary, extending from February 1 to November 30; the daily 
period is from 7 to 11 a. m. and 1 to 5 p. m.; the usual recitation 
period is 50 minutes. The subjects of study and time element are 
found in the weekly schedule appended to the report. 

HIGHER EDUCATION. 

The Central University of Honduras at Tegucigalpa is the only 
institution offering advanced professional education. As at present 
constituted, it contains faculties or schools of law, medicine, and 
engineering. It offers professional degrees in law, medicine, phar¬ 
macy, and civil engineering. For entrance the student must have 
graduated from one of the secondary schools, receiving the degree of 
bachelor of science and letters. The medical course is of six years, 


90 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


pharmacy of four years, law (jurisprudence) of five years, notary and 
solicitor each of three years, and civil engineering course of four 
years. 

. THE TEACHERS. 


With the exception of primary teachers appointed by the mayors of 
the municipalities, all other teachers and school officers—depart¬ 
mental and State—are appointed by the Minister of Public Instruc¬ 
tion; school inspectors, normal school and colegio directors are not 
authorized to select the members of their own staff. The provisional 
requisites for primary teachers are, first, to have a diploma as master, 
a certificate of ability, or, lacking this, to be of recognized competence;, 
second, to be 20 years of age in case of male teachers and 18 years in 
case of females, if they have not the diploma mentioned above; 
third, to be of irreproachable conduct. In practice, however, these 
requirements are unfulfilled. More than half of the primary teachers, 
are inexperienced and without previous pedagogical instruction. 
The average wage of the teachers in the rural schools does not exceed 
$20 per month in United States currency. Of the 487 normal 
students in 1920, 194 were supported by scholarships, of which 167 
were paid by the Federal Government and 27 by the municipalities. 

FOREIGN SCHOLARSHIPS. 

In addition to the scholarships for the preparation of teachers 
mentioned above, there were on July 31, 1921, 44 students enjoying 
Government scholarships in foreign schools. Of these 11 were study¬ 
ing medicine, 8 agronomy, 6 commerce, 4 engineering, 4 preparatory 
courses, 3 law, 2 painting, 2 dentistry, 1 sculpture, 1 industrial chem¬ 
istry, 1 homeopathy, and 1 pedagogy. The Government spends. 
$4,230 monthly on these scholarships. 

Weekly schedule of the five-grade primary school. 


Subjects. 


Hours per week each year. 


Intellectual and moral culture. 


National language. 

Object lessons. 

Arithmetic. 

Geography. 

History. 


II III IV 


Notions of physics and natural science. 

Civic instruction (domestic economy and sewing for girls). 
Morals and etiquette. 


Physical and artistic culture. 


Penmanship. 

Drawing. 

Manual labor (appropriate types for girls'. 
Agricultural labor (gardening for girls).... 

Singing. 

Physical exercise and educational games.. 


Total weekly periods. 





































CENTRAL AMERICA 


91 


Weekly schedule of the four-year normal schools. 


Subjects. 

Hours per week each year. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

Spanish. 

5 

5 

3 

3 

English . 

3 

3 

3 


Mathematics. 

5 

3 

3 


Natural. 


3 

3 

2 

Physiology and hvgiem. 



3 


Physics. 



5 


Chemistry. 




5 

Geography and history. 

3 

3 

3 

3 

Pedagogy. 

3 

3 

3 

3 

School hygiene . . . 




3 

Agriculture, theoretical—practical. 


3 

2 


Morals and etiquette. 

2 




Civic instruction. 


2 

2 

1 

School practice.. . . . . 




12 

Penmanship . 

3 




Drawing... . 

2 

2 

2 

1 

Singing . 

2 

2 

1 

1 






Atannnl training.. . . . 

2 

2 



Gymnasium and school games. 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Total class periods for week. 

32 

33 

35 

36 


Weekly schedule of the five-year national colegios. 


Subjects. 


Spanish. 

French. 

English.* .- - - • 

Mathematics, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry. 

Geography and history.-.-. 

Natural science, botany, zoology, mineralogy, geology 

Physiology and hygiene. 

Moral and civic instruction. 

Penmanship and drawing. 

Manual training. 

Gymnasium.-.- - - - -. 

Bookkeeping (theory and practice of accounting). 

Physics. 

Chemistry... 


Hours per week each year. 


Steps in the education system of Honduras. 


School or grade. 


Rural school. 

Urban school of 3, 4 and 5 grades. 


School of commerce.. 

Normal school. 

Instituto and colegio^ 
School of pharmacy.. 
School of medicine... 


School of law. 

School of engineering. 


Proximate ages. 


7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 



34 1 

31 

35 

36 

36 


1 






22 






























































































































































92 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


EDUCATION IN NICARAGUA. 

GENERAL STATEMENT. 

Nicaragua, the largest of the Central American Republics, has 
an area of 49,200 square miles and a population (1920) of 638,119, 
or about 13 per square mile. The inhabitants of the western half 
are chiefly a mixed race of Spanish-Indian extraction; of the eastern 
half they are principally Mosquito and Zambo Indians, negroes from 
the West Indies, and various admixtures of these races. There are 
probably not more than 1,200 of strictly white races, mostly Spanish. 
Nicaragua comprises a narrow strip of land within the Tropics (11° to 
15° north latitude), separating two great oceans and crossed by two 
mountain ranges varying in height from 3,000 to 7,000 feet. Its 
climate is quite variant—hot and humid on the eastern coast, hot 
and dry on the western, and cool and healthful in the mountainous 
regions of the interior. Under proper sanitation the whole country 
may be made pleasant and livable. The rainfall in most parts is 
excessive, averaging about 200 inches per year on the eastern coast 
and 80 inches on the western. In the east the rainfall is general 
throughout the year, but in the west there are two seasons, the dry, 
from December to April, and the wet, from May to November. 

The Republic is divided into 13 Departments and two Territories, 
each of which is under the head of a governor appointed by the 
President of the Republic. Below the Departments the political 
unit is the municipality. Primary education is free and compulsory 
between the ages of 6 and 13. In the school statistics of 1920 there 
were recorded 321 public and 40 private primary schools, 5 public 
and 4 private secondary schools, and 3 universities. The records 
of that year gave 1,019 teachers, divided as follows: In public 
schools 790 (male 317, female 473); in private schools, 229 (male 95, 
female 134). There were enrolled in the schools 26,608 pupils, 
21,264 in the public schools, and 5,344 in the private schools. The 
average daily attendance was 22,709, of whom 18,440 were in public 
and 4,269 in private schools. 

An item from the minister’s report of 1920 showed an enrollment in 
public primary education of 21,264, which was divided as follows: 
Infant or kindergarten, 6,521; first grade, 7,874; second grade, 4,351; 
third grade, 1,542; fourth grade, 719; fifth grade, 257. Although 
education is compulsory covering these grades, it will be seen that 
there is a marked falling off from the first to the fifth, due largely 
to local economic conditions which force many children to begin 
earning a living at a tender age. Compared to the population the 
school attendance is exceedingly small. 


CENTRAL AMERICA. 


93 


SCHOOL YEAR. 

The length of the school year is given as 182 days, or 30 weeks 
of 6 days per week, though, owing to holidays, it extends over a longer 
period. In the upper grades and the national institutes the recitation 
period is usually one hour in length. 

ADMINISTRATION. 

Public education in Nicaragua is directly under the control of the 
Minister of Public Instruction, who is one of the six members of the 
President’s cabinet. He has control of all the public schools, both 
elementary and secondary, and the higher institutions such as the 
schools of law at Managua, Granada, and Leon, the schools of medi¬ 
cine at Leon and Granada, and the commercial colegio maintained 
by the Government. He is further charged with the encouragement 
and development of educational facilities throughout the country. 
Directly under the minister and reporting to him is the body of school 
inspectors composed of the inspector general, the provincial inspec¬ 
tors, and the local or district inspectors. Only in the outlying 
districts are the jefes 'politicos and municipal authorities called upon 
to exercise some supervision. 

PRIMARY EDUCATION. 

There are as yet but few rural schools, and these are found only 
in the more advanced departments. They do not aim to give the 
full primary course, which in the standard Government primary 
schools of the municipalities covers a six-year course of five grades 
above the one-year subprimary, which is designated “infant school 
or kindergarten.” In the subprimary or first year (children average 
above 6) the subjects prescribed are reading, writing, drawing, elocu¬ 
tion, grammar, composition, arithmetic, geometry, geography, 
patriotic history, deportment, civic instruction, natural sciences, 
agriculture, gardening, vocal music, sewing and other manual labor, 
physical culture, domestic economy, and religion. It does not read 
like a subprimary or kindergarten program, but all primary courses 
in Latin America seem rather onerous to students of this country. 
One may remark that there are no texts, the subjects are taught 
objectively, the program seems designed specially for the teacher, 
and the method used is quite similar to that found in the ordinary 
Sunday school of this country. Children are not expected to 'spend 
much time in school, so are plunged on the first opportunity into 
so-called geometry, natural science, history, civics, domestic economy, 
agriculture, etc. Upon emerging from the schools they naturally 
know but little of these subjects as they are taught in the LTnited 
States. Certain hours or periods are set apart each week for talks 
54894°—23-7 


94 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


on the above subjects. The teachers for the subprimary year are 
invariably women. 

The subjects prescribed in the second, third, and fourth years 
(first, second, and third grades, respectively) are exactly the same 
as those given above for the subprimary. In the fifth year, or fourth 
grade, physics and chemistry are added, and in the sixth year, or 
fifth grade, the subjects remain the same. In the sixth, or final, 
year arithmetic goes to compound interest and logarithms; general 
geography is prescribed with commercial and industrial geography. 
From the information obtainable it does not seem that the average 
graduates of these schools would rank in mental maturity with the 
fifth-grade graduates of the elementary schools of this country. 
They may have a very superficial knowledge of a few more subjects, 
but they will not have so good a foundation for proceeding to higher 
education. Completion of the above primary course is essential for 
entrance into the national institutes or Government secondary 
schools. 

Of the 321 public primary schools, 96 were for boys only, 96 for 
girls only, and 129 were mixed schools; of the 790 public-school 
teachers, 68, or 59 men and 9 women, were bachelors with the title 
“professors”; 106, or 74 men and 32 women, were titled “graduate 
teachers”; and 616, or 184 men and 432 women, were teachers 
without titles. Teachers’ salaries are low, averaging less than $30 
per month, though living is higher than in other Central American 
Republics. 

SECONDARY EDUCATION. 

Secondary education in the Republic is at present offered in five 
subsidized national institutes, as follows: The Western National 
Institute, at Leon; the Central National Institute (for boys), at 
Managua; the Boys’ Pedagogical Institute, Managua; the Girls’ 
Normal School, Managua; and the Eastern National Institute, at 
Granada. All these schools lead on a five-year course to the 
bachelor’s degree in science and letters. They require for entrance 
completion of the six-year primary course. Formerly the course 
in the Girls’ Normal School, leading to the bachelor’s degree, re¬ 
quired but four years, but in 1916 it was modified and is now quite 
similar to the other five-year requirements for the bachelor’s degree 
as given elsewhere in this report. 

The normal schools carry both academic and professional (teacher¬ 
training) courses. Less than half the students are in the normal 
school proper. The academic courses are identical with those of 
other secondary schools, and the normal courses lead in five years 
to the degree of master of education. In the school year 1920-21 
there were enrolled in the above five institutions 767 students, of 


CENTRAL AMERICA. 


95 


whom 33 received the bachelor’s degree in science and letters, and 
17 the master’s degree in education. There are also four strictly 
private secondary schools with courses somewhat similar to the above 
schools, though they are not so well equipped. There is less pro¬ 
vision made for the secondary education of girls than of boys, and 
only about one-fourth as many girls receive secondary education. 
Most of the Government secondary schools are privately managed, 
and the strictly private schools must conform to Government regu¬ 
lations. 

HIGHER EDUCATION. 


There are three professional institutions of university rank, the 
faculties of law in Leon, Granada, and Managua, and the faculties of 
medicine in Leon and Granada, the faculty of medicine of Leon being 
the larger, containing schools of pharmacy and dentistry. There is 
a school of agriculture in Chinandega, and the law makes provision 
for a school of engineering, which has not yet been established. 

The degree of “bachiller en cienoias y letras” is required for 
entrance into the schools of law and medicine. The course in the 
law schools covers five years and leads to the title of doctor of law; 
that of notary requires three years. The course in medicine covers 
six years, those of pharmacy and dentistry four. 

The Government is devoting special attention to increasing the 
facilities for primary instruction and for modernizing education. 
In 1920, of the 229 public-school buildings in use by the Government, 
204 were rented and only 25 owned by the Government. Children of 
the wealthier families usually receive their higher education abroad, 
often their elementary education also. Nicaragua makes provision 
for sending annually a number of young men and women abroad for 
study. In 1920, 34 students were maintained in foreign schools at 
Government expense. 

Schedule of the Government secondary schools. 


Subjects. 


Spanish, language and literature. 

French. 

English.. 

Geography, universal and physical.-. 

History, universal, Nicaragua, and Central America... 
Mathematics, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and 

trigometry. 

Drawing, geometric and natural. 

Physics. 


Hours per week each year. 


| | l 

First. 'Second. Third. Fourth. Fifth. Total 


Chemistry;. 

Natural history, mineralogy, geology. 

Philosophy, psychology, logic. 

Physiology and hygiene. 


Total. 




































96 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


Schedule of the two-year commercial course . 1 



Hours per week each 
year 

Subjects. 




First. 

Second 

Total. 


4 

4 

8 


1 

1 

2 


1 

1 

2 


3 

3 

6 


3 

3 

6 


2 

2 

4 


4 

4 

8 


2 

2 

4 


1 

1 

2 


4 

4 

8 


1 

1 

2 


1 

1 

2 


1 

1 

2 


2 

2 

4 


30 

30 

60 






1 This course is connected with the normal school and may be entered from the fourth grade of the pri 
mary schools. 


Steps in the education system of Nicaragua. 


Proximate acres. 


School or grade. 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 






















l. * 




Normal school. 

f 





i 











l- - 














i. _ 












































1 1 1 I 1 


EDUCATION IN SALVADOR. 

GENERAL STATEMENT. 

The Republic of Salvador is the smallest and most densely popu¬ 
lated of the Central American Republics. Its area is 13,183 square 
miles, and its estimated population (1923) is 1,500,000, or about 
114 per square mile. It is bounded on the north and east by Hon¬ 
duras, on the south by the Pacific Ocean, and on the west by Guate¬ 
mala. Lying wholly within the Tropics, bordering for 160 miles 
with a narrow (about 15 miles wide) strip of territory on the Pacific 
Ocean, but rising rapidly inland to a more or less level plateau 
region (2,000 or more feet above sea level), dotted with many still 
higher volcanic cones; its climate is varied—hot and malarial on the 
coast, but temperate and healthful on the inland plateau. Some 
of the mountain peaks reach an altitude of 8,000 feet, where frosts 
are common. Many of the volcanoes have been continuously active 
for centuries, and earthquakes are frequent, especially in the region 
of San Salvador, the capital, which has been more or less completely 
destroyed 11 times since the sixteenth century. 























































































CENTRAL AMERICA. 


97 


Two mountain ranges cross the country almost its entire length, 
sending out numerous spurs and attaining considerable altitudes. 
Inclosed by these ranges are numerous fertile valleys, among which 
that of the River Lampa is the most important. The country is 
well adapted to special types of agriculture, and farming is the chief 
occupation and more advanced than in other Central American 
Republics. There are two seasons—the wet, or so-called winter 
season, extending from May to October; and the dry, or so-called 
summer season, extending from November to April. In July and 
August there are high winds, which are followed by torrential rains 
and thunderstorms. 

The legislative power of the Republic is vested in a Congress of 
Deputies (42), 3 for each of the 14 Departments, elected by universal 
suffrage of their respective districts for terms of one year. The 
President and Vice President are elected by popular vote for terms 
of four years. Justice is administered by the supreme court, one 
court of third instance in the capital, several courts of first and second 
instance, and a number of minor courts. All judges of second and 
third instances are elected by the National Assembly for terms of 
two years, while the judges of first instance are appointed by the 
supreme court for similar terms. At the head of each Department 
is a jefe politico , governor, appointed by the President of the Republic; 
and at the head of the municipality is ah alcalde or regidor. 

The inhabitants are composed of about 10 per cent whites (creoles 
and foreigners), of whom 2.5 per cent are estimated as pure blood 
whites; 60 per cent mestizos; and 40 per cent Indians. Public 
primary education is free, secular, and obligatory for boys from 6 
to 14, and for girls from 6 to 12. Public education is supported 
either by the State or municipal governments, but is supervised and 
directed principally by the Central Government. There are the 
usual three divisions of education: Primary, of five years; secondary, 
of five years; superior or professional—law and engineering, five 
years; medicine, six years. 

SCHOOLS AND ATTENDANCE. 

During the school year 1921 there were in operation 808 State 
primary schools, as follows: Urban primary schools, for boys 243, for 
girls 252, mixed 18, total 513; rural primary schools, for boys 24, for 
girls 18, mixed 165, total 207; night schools for adults 88, for men 58, 
for women 30. In the same year the number of municipal primary 
schools was 84, for boys 54, for girls 11, mixed 19; the number of 
private primary schools was 47, for boys 18, for girls 13, mixed 16, 
and there were 58 colegios in which primary instruction was also 
given, 23 for boys, 29 for girls, and 6 mixed; making a grand total 
of 997 primary schools. There were 51,896 pupils enrolled in the 
public primary schools, with an average attendance of 34,470, and a 


98 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


teaching force of 1,607. In the same year (1921) there were 27 insti¬ 
tutions offering part or complete secondary education, including 2 
normal and 3 technical schools. The Government supports com¬ 
pletely only one standard secondary school, the National Institute of 
San Salvador, but there are 14 other institutions of secondary rank, 
some municipal and some private, having official recognition. There 
were in the above secondary schools 2,345 students, 330 of whom 
were in the National Institute of San Salvador. 

SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION. 

Education is administered through the Department of Foreign 
Affairs, Public Instruction, and Justice, one of the four cabinet offices 
of the Republic. Besides the Minister of Public Instruction there is 
an undersecretary of public instruction, a chief clerk of public in¬ 
struction, an inspector general of public instruction, and director 
generals of primary, secondary, and superior education. There are 
departmental inspectors, departmental boards of education of four 
members, municipal boards of like number, and temporary exam¬ 
ining boards of three members. 

The Minister of Public Instruction has direction of the office of the 
director and inspector general of public primary education and has 
the authority of appointing members of the boards and all the school 
employees. The governor of the department is ex officio president 
of the departmental board of education, but the Minister of Public 
Instruction has authority to appoint another citizen of right qualifi¬ 
cation as president of the depi rt nental board. 

SCHOOL YEAR. 

The school year corresponds with the calendar year; the school 
session extends from the 1st of February to the 15th of November, 
including within the time 24 or more holidays, exclusive of Sundays; 
making the average school term (year) 36 weeks. There is a vacation 
of 10 days during Holy Week, another of 10 days the last of July 
and the first of August, and the other holidays are scattered through¬ 
out the year. The school week consists of six days, the school day 
of seven hours (7 to 11 a. m. and 2 to 5 p. m.), and the recitation 
period varies from 30 to 50 minutes. No student is permitted, how 
ever, to take more than 38 hours of crediting subjects per week. 

PRIMARY EDUCATION. 

There are two types of primary schools: Rural, with a two or four 
years course; urban with a five years’ course. The rural primary 
schools are simplified to meet local conditions and to give to the 
scattered children the rudiments of education. They are of three 
types—for boys only, for girls only, and mixed; the majority, from 
necessity, are of the latter class. In all girls’ and mixed schools the 
teachers are invariably women. The subjects of study in the rural 


CENTRAL AMERICA. 


99 


primary schools are Spanish, language, reading, writing; arithmetic; 
geography, general notions of earth and bodies of water, Salvador 
and Central America; history of Salvador and America; morals and 
civility; hand training. 

The urban primary school is able to cover in the five years a more 
pretentious course. Very few of these schools are coeducational; 
most of them are separate schools for boys only or for girls only. 
They prepare in the five years’ course f or entrance to secondary 
schools, though entrance to the latter is always on examination in 
the following subjects: Writing, Spanish, grammar, arithmetic, his¬ 
tory and geography of Central America. The subjects of study are 
shown in the time schedule presented with the report. 


Number of hours per week in the subjects of each year of the course of the urban primary 

school, Salvador . 1 2 


Subjects. 


Spanish, language, reading, and writing. 

Arithmetic. 

Drawing, natural and geometric. 

Nature study. 

Notions of science and industry. 

Geography and history. 

Morals, civility, and civic instruction 

Agriculture. 

Hygiene. 

Physical exercise. 

Military exercise (boys). 

Manual training... 

Music. 

Domestic economy and work for women. 

English. 

French. 


Total hours per week. 


Years of the course. 


First. Second. Third. Fourth. Fifth. Sixth. Total 


(3)4 

1 

(2)3 

2 

( 3 ) 


2 

(3)4 

(2)3 

2 

( 3 ) 


2 

(3)4 

(2)3 

2 

( 3 ) 

3 


(2)3 

4 

2 


2 

3 

1 

(2)3 

2 

( 3 ) 

3 


52 

20 

12 

4 

(9)10 

26 

11 

3 

10 

(16)19 

6 

(10)16 

11 

( 18 ) 

10 

6 


2 36 


1 Where the hours for boys and girls differ, those for the girls only are indicated by numbers in paren¬ 
theses. The primary course is now five instead of six years, as shown in the table. By omitting the last 
(sixth) year the course is similar to the one now in practice. 

2 Average. 

SECONDARY EDUCATION. 

The strictly secondary schools of Salvador are given under the 
names instituto, colegio, or liceo. The first two are more apt to be 
public and the latter private, though this is not the invariable rule. 
The National Institute for boys of San Salvador is the only strictly 
secondary school supported and managed wholly by the Federal 
Government. Many others receive Government subsidies, but are 
privately managed. The National Institute has the full five years’ 
course of the Government secondary school, given elsewhere, and 
acts as the model or standard secondary school of the Republic. 
Most of the other secondary schools lack the fifth year and do not 
prepare completely for the university. The private liceos may admit 
children of 6 and offer both primary and secondary courses. In order 
to have their students receive public promotion and degrees, they 
must conform to the Government standards. 



































100 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


Besides the strictly secondary schools as given above, there are 
vocational and two normal schools, with several normal courses 
offered in secondary schools. The vocational school course generally 
covers three years, and requires for entrance completion of the fourth 
or fifth year primary. The course in the boys’ normal school is for 
four years, one year preparatory and three normal; the course in 
the girls’ normal school is for three years; both require for entrance 
completion of the five years’ primary course, and an age limit of 14 
for girls and 15 for boys. There are also a number of private com¬ 
mercial schools, with courses of varying length. These are usually 
classed with secondary schools, though rarely do they give courses 
applicable to further study. The courses of study in the boys’ 
normal school and secondary school may be obtained from the time 
schedule given elsewhere. 

The following qualifications are required of teachers: (1) The 
title of professor of primary, or secondary public instruction (the 
former comes with graduation from the normal school, the latter 
requires in addition the degree that comes on graduation from the 
secondary school or preparatory course of the university); (2) to be 
thoroughly familiar with the branches of study which are to be 
assigned; (3) to be of good conduct, not suffering from any contagious 
disease and having no physical defects which might interfere with 
the profession. Temporary teachers may be admitted to the schools 
on examination, in case of emergency or special need. 

Number of hours per week in the subjects of each year of the course of the Normal School for 

Boys, San Salvador. 


Years of the course. 


Subjects. 

Prepar¬ 

atory. 

First. 

Second. 

Third. 

Total. 

Spanish language and literature. 

4 

3 

3 

4 

14 

Mathematics, arithmetic, algebra, geometry. 

5 

3 

4 

5 

17 

10 

A 

Geography of Central America and of the Old World 

4 

3 

3 


Scientific and practical notions of tropical and indus¬ 
trial agriculture. 




4 

History, Central American and universal. 

3 

3 

3 


1 1 
9 

Scientific notions of physiology, anatomy, hygiene, 
and industry. 

4 




A 

Scientific notions of zoology, botany, geology, and 
industry. 


3 



* 

q 

Scientific notions of physics, chemistry, and infdustry 



3 


O 

3 

Penmanship. 

3 




q 

Reading. 

3 




O 

Drawing. 

2 

2 

O 

o 

«J 

Q 

English. 

4 

3 

L 


5 

7 

French. 



3 

A 

• 

7 

Singing. • 

2 

2 

2 

$ 

# 

A 

Manual training. 

2 

2 

2 

O 

0 

Physical culture. 

2 

2 

o 

At 

o 

8 

8 

Morals.. 


2 

At 

9 

L 

o 

Notions of bookkeeping. 


At 

At 

3 

6 

q 

Pedagogical psychology. 

4 



o 

A 

Methodology. i 


3 


Q 

School administration. 




4 

A 

School practice. 


6 

g 

a 

1 Q 





O 

15 

Total hours per week. 

38 

38 

qQ 

QQ 

138 


oo 

OO 


Average. 

















































CENTRAL AMERICA. 


101 


Number of hours per week in the subjects of each year of the course of the Government 
Secondary School , Salvador. 


Subjects. 

Years of the course. 

First. 

Second. 

Third. 

Fourth. 

Fifth. 

Total. 

Spanish language and literature 

4 

4 

3 

3 


14 

9 

9 

9 

4 

Latin and Greek roots... 

English. . 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 



French. 

Literature, special course.. 



3 

3 

Geography, universal. 

3 

4 




7 

History, local and general. 

4 

4 

4 

4 


ifi 

^nometry 08 — ar ** imet * c > algebra, geometry, trigo- 

a 




Q 

lu 

oo 

Drawing, natural and geometric. 

D 

2 

2 

4 

4 

O 

ZZ 

4 

Natural history, geology, mineralogy, zoology, botany, 
agriculture. 

PhvQlOC 



3 

3 


6 

•Chemistry. 




5 

3 

5 

4 

10 

7 

Philosophy, logic, psychology, ethics. 




5 

5 

10 

Notions of cosmography and phvsical ceoeranhv 





4 

4 

Physiology and hygiene. 





4 

4 








Total hours per week. 

25 

26 

27 

30 

2S 

127 



1 Average. 


Upon completing the above course and passing the prescribed 
^examinations the student is granted the degree of BachiUer en Cien- 
cias y Letras (bachelor of science and letters) and permitted to enter 
the university or the school of medicine, situated in the capital. 

HIGHER EDUCATION. 

All higher education is found in the capital city of San Salvador. 
There is a National University of Salvador, with faculties of law, 
medicine, pharmacy, dentistry, engineering, and chemical and social 
sciences. These require for entrance the bachelor’s degree which is 
obtained through graduation from the National Institute and other 
first-class secondary schools. The courses in pharmacy and dentistry 
•cover four years; law and engineering five, and medicine six, the 
sixth year being devoted to the work of intern and practice. 

Techinal instruction is furnished by the National Agricultural 
Institute, the National School of Finance and Commerce, the School 
of Graphic Arts, the Military Polytechnic School, and the Technical- 
Practical School for Girls, all in San Salvador. The last two are of 
secondary rank, fitting for vocations. The Government is taking 
deep interest in public education, especially in that of primary edu¬ 
cation (the Minister of Public Instruction in his report to Congress, 
March, 1919, gave the illiteracy of the people at 70 per cent); physical 
.education; vocational education, including agricultural education. 











































102 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


Steps in the education system of Salvador. 


School or grade. 

Proximate ages. 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

Rural primary school j. 

















Urban primary school. 

Vnpn.fi nrifll c.phnnl 








Normal school: 

Girls. 





1 


Boys.i 






Rppnnrlflry <?r»hnnl 




Pharmacy dentistry 










University: 

Law engineering 

• |; j 








Medicine 




l 








•"1 

"*T :l 





It is aimed to show by the graph four points of the public education system: The 
types of schools, the length of the course, the proximate age of the pupil or student, 
and the preschooling or academic requirement for entrance to the course. The 
leader line preceding the heavy continuous line represents the required years of 
preschooling. In the case of the normal schools there is an age limit of entrance 
of 14 or 15, which may prevent the pupil from entering immediately on completing 
the required five years’ primary course. 

EDUCATION IN COSTA RICA. 

GENERAL INFORMATION. 

The Republic of Costa Rica represents a narrow strip of tableland 
of southeastern Central America separating two great oceans, the 
Pacific and the Atlantic. It is traversed from the southeast to the 
northwest by a volcanic chain of mountains (Cordillera), the crests 
of which divide the country into slightly unequal halves, the one to 
the northeast bordering on the Carribean Sea being the larger. On 
the slopes of the divide of the mountain range, which extends the* 
whole length of the country, are densely timbered forests of cabinet 
and other valuable woods; as, mahogany, ebony, cedar, ironwood r 
logwood, india rubber, Brazil-wood, oak, etc. The chief industry is. 
farming, to which the country is well adapted; coffee, bananas, cacao, 
tobacco, sugar, indigo, rice, coconuts, corn, wheat, horses, hogs, 
sheep, goats, etc., are the chief sources of wealth. Gold, silver, 
nickel, iron, and manganese are mined. 

The area of Costa Rica is 23,000 square miles, and the estimated 
population (1923) is 476,581, or about 21 per square mile. The 
inhabitants are composed of about 4,000 unmixed Indians, 8,000 
pure-blood whites (mostly Spanish), and the rest made up of a mixture 
of Indians and white races of long standing and of varying propor¬ 
tions, of which the admixture of Spanish is greater than in other 
republics. Except in the lowlands of the immediate vicinity of the 
coast, the climate is mild and healthful during most of the year; in 
fact, as in most mountainous countries, a short journey inland, 












































CENTRAL AMERICA. 


103 


owing to the change in elevation, may reduce the temperature by 
many degrees. There are naturally three climatic zones; a tropical 
one, from sea level inland to an elevation of about 3,000 feet; a 
temperate one, from 3,000 to 7,500 feet altitude; and a colder one, 
from 7,500 to 11,200 feet altitude, where frosts are frequent. In the 
Province of San Jose, with an altitude from 3,000 to 5,000 feet above 
sea level, the climate is that of perpetual spring, having a yearly 
average temperature of 68° F. The average rainfall is about 80 
inches, but it varies with localities, seasons, and even years, some¬ 
times averaging 140 inches per year. There are a number of con¬ 
tinuously active volcanoes, and thunderstorms and earthquakes are 
frequent and sometimes quite destructive. 

The Republic is divided into 7 provinces, which are again divided 
into 56 cantons, and these in turn are divided into districts. The 7 
provinces, all with capitals of the same name with the single excep¬ 
tion of Guanacaste, whose capital is Liberia, are San Jose, Alajuela, 
Heredia, Cartago, Guanacaste, Puntarenas, and Limon. There is a 
President elected for four years by universal (male) suffrage, and a 
Congress or Chamber of Deputies of 43 members who are also elected 
for terms of four years (one-half retiring every two years) by the 
direct vote of the people of the district. The President’s cabinet 
consists of six departments, one of which is known as the Depart¬ 
ment of Public Instruction. The judicial powers are vested in a 
supreme court, composed of 11 members chosen by Congress for 
terms of four years, and a number of minor or inferior courts. 

The provinces are administered by governors appointed by the 
President. The chiefs of cantons are also appointed by the Presi¬ 
dent on the recommendation of the governors. The chiefs of cantons 
are assisted in their official capacity by municipal councils elected 
by popular vote. 

In the report of the school year of 1921 there are recorded as 
operative 398 public primary schools and 25 private primary schools. 
Of the public primary schools, 57 were classified as of the first order; 
39 of the second order; and 302 of the third order. There were 
1,332 primary school teachers and 37,049 school children enrolled. 
There are eight schools classed as secondary, a faculty of law, one of 
medicine and pharmacy, one of medicine, obstetrics, and nursing, 
one of fine arts, and four night schools for adults, giving instruction 
in cooking and sewing. 

The school year extends from the first of January to the last of 
December, the school session from the first or middle of March to the 
middle or last of November, with the intervening holidays. Owing 
to local conditions the school year varies somewhat both as to time 
of beginning and the length of the sessions, but the usual length of 


104 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


the school term is 36 weeks of 5 days per week, or 180 days. The 
recitation period varies from 30 minutes or less in the primary to 
50 minutes in secondary schools. 

SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION. 

Formerly education was under the direction of the Department 
of Foreign Affairs, Justice, and Public Worship, hut it is now under 
the management of the new cabinet Department of Public Instruc¬ 
tion (Secretaria de Instruccion Publica). The Minister of Public 
Instruction is in charge of all public primary, secondary, and higher 
education, including technical and professional schools, such astheliceo 
for boys and the colegio for girls (both with normal attachments) 
at San Jose, the normal school at Heredia, the school of law, of 
medicine and surgery, of medicine, surgery, and pharmacy; also 
the Institute for Physical Geography, the Meteorology Observatory, 
the National School of Fine Arts, the national and other public 
libraries are under his jurisdiction. 

There are national and provincial boards of education, a national 
board of directors of seconday and normal schools, a national board 
of school inspectors consisting of 18 or more members representing 
the different provinces, and each school district is provided with a 
school board to look after the financial and other local needs of the 
school. The governor of the province is chairman of the provincial 
school board and is charged with the function of carrying out the 
school laws. The immediate supervision of primary schools is under 
the provincial school inspectors. There are also institutional direc¬ 
tors, a department of sanitation and school hygiene, and in San 
Jose there are medical, school dental, and children’s clinics. 

PRIMARY EDUCATION. 

Primary education is free and compulsory between the ages of 
■6 and 14, or until completing the primary school course. All matters 
relating to public instruction are under the national Department of 
Public Instruction, but primary schools are provided and maintained 
by local school councils. The National Government pays the salaries 
of teachers and makes subventions in aid of local school funds. There 
is no school census showing the number of children of school age, but 
from such estimates as have been made, it would seem that not more 
than half of the available children are in attendance at school. Most 
of the cities and towns have provided good school buildings, and 
there is considerable interest manifested by the people in primary 
education. 

Primary education covers a course of five years and leads on 
graduation and examination to entrance into the secondary schools. 


CENTRAL AMERICA. 


105 


The subjects of study are the usual subjects of primary education: 
Spanish, language, reading, writing, etc.; morals and civics; arithme¬ 
tic, geography, history, agriculture, hygiene; manual training (boys), 
domestic science (girls), music, physical exercise, nature study, 
notions of science and industry. About three-fourths of the teachers 
in the primary schools are women and one-fourth men; 22 per cent 
of the men and 34 per cent of the women in 1921 possessed normal 
certificates or the title of normal teacher. 

SECONDARY EDUCATION. 

Complete secondary education is offered in the liceo for hoys and 
the superior colegio for girls at San Jose, the colegio of Cartago, the 
Institute of Alajuela, and the coeducational normal school of Costa 
Rica at Heredia. A few other institutions offer some secondary 
work, and the colegio for girls in San Jose has a strong normal depart¬ 
ment. There are the beginnings of commercial and vocational 
schools, but as yet there does not seem to be a definite curriculum 
with specific entrance requirements and stated length of course. 

Until 1921 the secondary school course covered but five years and 
led after a final examination to the usual bachelor’s degree. In 
1921 the new standard secondary school course of six years, given 
elsewhere, was proposed by the Government authorities and is now 
in partial operation. The new course is based on completion of the 
five years’ primary, as was the old. The normal-school course has been 
of equal length to the former secondary schools, five years, and may 
now add the extra year also, though of that the information is not at 
hand. To enter one of the standard secondary schools, besides the 
scholastic requirement there is an age limit of 12 years. The subjects 
of study and the time element are found in the table given elsewhere. 

HIGHER EDUCATION. 

There is no university in Costa Rica, and students are accustomed 
to go elsewhere for higher education. There is the beginning of 
higher professional and technical education; and in San Jose, the 
capital, are schools of law, medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, engineer¬ 
ing, fine arts, agriculture, and commerce. The programs, courses, 
and other desirable information of these institutions are not at 
hand. 

In San Jose there is a National Library, school libraries of the 
Liceo for boys, of the Colegio for girls, of the law, engineering, and 
medical schools, of the Metropolitan Palace, and many private 
libraries. Besides, there are 56 school libraries, public libraries in 
the cities of Alajuela, San Ramon, the municipality of Cartago, and 
the Normal School of Heredia. 


106 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


Hours per week in the subjects of each year of the proposed standard secondary school course 

(1921) of Costa Rica. 


Years in the course. 


Subjects. 


Spanish language and literature. 

English. 

French. 

History, local, Central American, general. 

Geography, local, Central American, general.. 
Cosmography, local, Central American, general 

Anatomy, physiology, hygiene. 

Sanitary science. 

Psychology. 

Logic... 

Mathematics... 

Topography and topographic drawing. 

Physics... 

Chemistry. 

Physics and chemistry, combined and applied. 

Botany and zoology.,. 

Anatomy and physiology of plants and animals 

Biology, geology, and mineralogy. 

Civic?. 

Political economy... 

Agriculture, practical and theoretical...... 

Drawing. 

Music and singing. 

Manual training. 

Physical education... 

Total hours per week... 


First. 


Second 


Third. 


34 


36 


36 


Fourth. 


Fifth. 


Sixth. I Total. 


5 

3 

3 

2 

2 


3 


2 

2 


4 


2 


2 

2 

2 


4 

3 

3 

2 

2 


3 


3 


2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 


4 

4 

4 

2 


2 


2 

2 

2 


6 


4 


2 


2 


25 

19 

13 

14 
10 

2 

4 

2 

4 

2 

15 
6 
8 
8 

7 
9 
4 
4 

8 
4 
8 

10 

10 

ID 

8 


36 


36 


36 


353 


* Average. 


The proposed standard secondary school course is based on a five years’ primary- 
school preparation, and it is being introduced gradually by promoting all members one 
year in advance of their standing in the former five years’ secondary school course 
Thus the first class to have covered the full 11 years of schooling (5 primary and 6 sec¬ 
ondary) on graduation will be the one finishing the above course in 1927. 


Steps in the education system of Costa Rica. 


—-——rr—?- r. - 1 -?- , 

School or grade. 

Proximate ages. 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

Primary school 













Commercial and trade schools. 







Secondary school. 








Normal school. 















.11 1 1 


In the case of the normal school there is an age limit of 14 for entrance, which may 
prevent the pupil from entering immediately on completing the required five years 
of the primary course. 

EDUCATION IN PANAMA. 


GENERAL CONDITIONS. 

The Republic of Panama (created in 1903, inclusive of the Canal 
Zone, which was subsequently ceded to the United States) was 
formerly a province of Colombia. It has an area of 33,667 square 
miles, and a population, according to the census of 1920, of 401,428, 
or about 11 persons to the square mile. It comprises the narrow 











































































































CENTRAL AMERICA. 


107 


'Strip of territory connecting Central and South America. Its climate 
is tropical and equable, averaging along the coast about 80° Fahren¬ 
heit throughout the year and about 12° lower inland, owing to eleva¬ 
tion. The temperature rarely falls below 66° or rises above 96°. 
The summer or dry season is from January to April, inclusive; the 
winter or rainy season covers the other months of the year. The 
average rainfall on the Atlantic coast is 140 inches, on the Pacific 
■coast 60 inches, and in the interior from 90 to 100 inches. 

The language is Spanish, and the inhabitants principally Spanish, 
Indian, Negro, or admixtures of these races. Education, except that 
in the Canal Zone, which is modeled on the plan of the United States, 
is quite similar to the system of instruction in the Republic of Colom¬ 
bia, from which the Republic of Panama was carved, and need not 
be so fully described here. 

In July, 1920, there were 79 urban primary schools and 147 rural 
or village schools, a total of 226 primary schools, with an enrollment 
■of 24,058 pupils. At the same time the only secondary schools of the 
Republic were located in the city of Panama. The National Institute, 
the principal secondary school, had an enrollment of 527 students, as 
follows: High-sahool course (liceo) 141; normal school course (boys), 
143; commercial, 108; painting, 25; agricultural, 21; pharmacy, 17; 
surveying, 15; law and political science, 57. The normal school for 
girls had 257 students and the school of arts and trades 140; in the 
private secondary schools of Panama were about 750 to 850 students, 
as follows: The Catholic Colegio La Salle, for boys, 500 to 600 students; 
the Colegio San Jose (Catholic), for girls, 150 students; the Colegio 
■de Panama (Methodist), 100 students. These private schools cover 
both primary and secondary education. 

SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION. 

At the head of the school system of Panama is the secretary of 
public instruction, one of the five cabinet officers of the Republic. 
Immediately under the secretary and subject to him in the conduct of 
•education is the inspector general of schools. There are 8 provinces 
and 16 school districts in the Republic. Each school district is 
provided with a school inspector, who exercises complete supervision 
over primary education. 

The secretary of public instruction has charge of all elementary, 
secondary, and special schools, both public and private, the national 
museum, and the pedagogical library. The secondary and higher 
schools are not under the supervision of the inspector general, who is 
■concerned with primary education only, but the separate faculties 
of the above institutions report directly to the secretary of public 
instruction. 


108 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA. 


SCHOOL YEAR. 

The length of the school year is 36 weeks of two semesters, the 
first semester extending from the beginning of May to the middle of 
September, the second semester from the middle of September to the 
last of January, interspersed with the usual holiday periods; or, as in 
the Canal Zone, the school year may extend from the first of October 
to the last of June. The heat is usually the greatest from December 
to May, inclusive, and has probably tended to modify the time of 
beginning and closing the school year. 

PRIMARY EDUCATION. 

Primary education is gratuitous, secular, and compulsory from 
7 to 15, though rarely enforced. The schools are of two types, rural 
and urban. The former has a course of three years, the latter of six 
years. The rural school meets the obligatory requirements of primary 
education and covers about the same ground as the first three years 
of the urban school. The six years’ course of the urban school is 
required for entrance into the secondary and special schools. In 
Panama and Colon it maybe preceded by one or two years kindergarten 
(5 to 7). As in other Latin-American countries, boys and girls are 
taught in separate schools, but the courses are virtually the same in 
both schools. The subjects of study are shown in the time schedule 
of the rural and urban primary schools given elsewhere. The number 
of hours given to the pupils per week will seem excessive to those 
familiar with the conditions as represented in the United States. 

SECONDARY AND HIGHER SCHOOLS. 

At present the only schools of secondary grade in the Republic of 
Panama are located in the city of Panama. It has been proposed 
to establish secondary schools of lower grade in Colon, David, and 
one or two other municipalities, but the proposal has not yet been 
carried into effect. The National Institute, which includes seven 
or eight special courses or schools as noted above, is sometimes men¬ 
tioned as a university. It represents both secondary and higher 
education in so far as higher education may be said to exist. The 
one-year course in the school of agriculture follows the four-years’ 
normal-school course; the two-year courses in the schools of phar¬ 
macy, surveying, and law are based on graduation from the five- 
years’ course of the liceo of the National Institute. 

Besides the National Institute, which contains the Government 
liceo, or standard secondary school, and the two Government normal 
schools, one for either sex, there are several private colegios offering 
work in secondary education. The normal-school course covers four 
years and requires for entrance graduation from the six years’ pri¬ 
mary. The liceo offers a five years’ course in two cycles, the first, 


CENTRAL AMERICA. 


109 


of three years, concluding with a certificate; the second, of two years, 
leading on examination to the degree of bachiller en humanidades 
(bachelor of humanities). The courses of study in both the normal 
schools and liceo are given elsewhere and will be of interest as show¬ 
ing the slight variation in the curricula for girls and boys. 

There are a number of special courses given either in the secondary 
school of the National Institute or separately—a vocational course 
of two years, a commercial course of two or three years, a three- 
years 7 course in the school of arts and trades, and a course of one or 
more years in painting. The first three courses are based on gradu¬ 
ation from the primary school; the last from the secondary school. 
The Government sends abroad annually a few promising young men 
and women to complete their education and return to the service of 
the State. 

Teachers in the primary grades are required to be graduates of 
the normal schools and are appointed upon presentation of their di¬ 
plomas within a reasonable time after graduation. Teachers of the 
secondary and higher schools are not required by law to possess any 
special qualifications or pass examinations for eligibility, but obvi¬ 
ously they must be equally or better qualified than teachers in 
primary schools. Recommendations for appointment are usually 
submitted by the principals of the schools where their services are 
needed and the appointments made by the secretary of public in¬ 
struction following such investigation as he deems adequate. There 
is a national conservatory of music, a national museum, and the be¬ 
ginnings of schools of engineering and medicine in the present schools 
of surveying and pharmacy. 

Rural primary schools {mixed). 


Subjects. 


Reading and writing. 

Language lessons. 

Object lessons. 

Arithmetic. 

History, geography, and civil government. 

Religion and sacred history.. 

Lessons in agriculture (boys) and sewing (girls) 
Singing and physical exercise. 

Total. 


Hours per week each year. 

First. 

Second. 

Third. 

Total. 

6 

6 

6 

18 


2 

2 

4 

3 

2 


5 

5 

4 

4 

13 


2 

4 

6 

2 

2 

2 

6 

2 

5 

5 

12 

2 

1 

1 

4 

20 

24 

24 

68 


54894°—23 - 8 






















110 


EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA, 


Schedule of the standard urban primary school for boys. 1 


Subjects. 

Hours per week each year 

First. 

Second. 

Third. 

Fourth. 

Fifth. 

Sixth. 

Total. 

Spanish, language, reading, etc . 

8 

8 

6 

6 

6 

6 

40 

Opjec^ lossnns . ... 

4 

4 





8 

Arithmetic . 

4 

4 

4 

4 

3 

3 

22 

fiprvmfitry ..._ 




2 

2 

2 

6 

Gp.opTapny . 



2 

2 

2 

2 

8 

History . 



2 

2 

2 

2 

8 

Natural scipnce. . 



2 

2 

2 

2 

8 

Physios .. . . 





1 

2 

3 

Civil povp.rnment,. 



1 

I 

2 

2 

6 

English . 



2 

2 

2 

2 

8 

Writing . 


2 

2 

1 

1 


6 

Drawing . 

2 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

10 

Religion and morality . 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

9 

Agriculture . 



1 

2 

2 

2 

7 

Gymnasium and organized games . 

4 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

14 

Singing. 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

9 

Total. 

26 

26 

30 

30 

30 

30 

172 


1 The urban primary school for girls, in subject matter and hours per week, is the same as that for boys, 
with the exception of agriculture and civil government. In civil government the girls have but two 
hours instead of six, and substitute domestic economy and occupations for women in place of agriculture. 


Time schedule of normal schools of the National Institute of Panama. 


Subjects. 

Hours per week each year. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

CO 

£ 

^3 

a 

o 

8 

CO 

m 

3 

H 

A 

3 

o 

N 

75 

O 

bn 

CO 

(-4 

5 

T3 

d 

o 

8 

CQ 

Ui 

3 

h 

a 

S-, 

S 

O 

73 

43 

O 

H 

Theory of teaching. 


3 

3 

6 

12 


3 

3 

6 

12 

Practice teaching. 



5 

18 

23 



3 

12 

15 

Spanish.7. 

6 

5 

4 

5 

20 

6 

5 

4 

6 

21 

Mathematics. 

6 

6 

4 

2 

18 

6 

5 

3 

4 

18 

Geography. 

3 

2 

2 

1 

8 

3 

2 

2 

1 

8 

History. 

2 

2 

2 

1 

7 

2 

2 

2 

1 

7 

Natural science. 

2 

2 

2 


6 

2 

2 

2 


6 

Physics.;. 


3 

3 


6 

2 

3 



5 

Chemistry . 



4 


4 



2 


2 

English .1. 

3 

3 

3 

3 

12 

3 

3 

3 

3 

12 

Religion . 

3 




3 

1 

1 

1 


3 

Civil government . 


2 

2 


4 



2 

2 

4 

Hygiene . 




1 

1 






Hygiene and care of infants . 









2 

2 

Practical scientific exercises . 




2 

2 




2 

2 

Agriculture . 




10 

10 






Horticulture and floriculture . 






2 

2 

2 

2 

8 

Manual training . 

2 

2 



4 





Domestic economy. 






3 

3 

3 

3 

12 

Gymnastics . 

2 

2 

2 

2 

8 

2 

2 

2 

2 

8 

Drawing . 

3 

2 



5 

2 

2 

2 


7 

Singing 7 . 

2 

2 

2 


6 

2 

2 

2 

1 

7 

Penmanship . 






2 

2 



4 

Needlework . 






3 

2 



R 

Garment making. 








3 

3 

0 












Total. 

34 

36 

38 

51 

159 

41 

41 

41 

51 

174 





































































































CENTRAL AMERICA, 


111 


Time schedule of the liceo of the National Institute of Panama. 



Proximate ages. 


School or grade. , 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

"Rural nrimarv sp.tiftnl 















Urban primary school. 

School of arts and trades. 




N ormal school. 

Secondary school. 

























School of surveying. 

























1 1 
























































































































, 











* 










' 























































(Continued from page 2 of cover.) 

No. 41. Consolidation of schools and transportation of pupils. J. F. Abel. 

No. 42. Educational research. B. T. Baldwin. 

No. 43. Games and other devices for improving pupils’ English. W. W. Charters 
and II. G. Paul. 

No. 44. Outlines of education systems and school conditions in Latin America. 
G. W. A. Luckey. 

No. 45. Work of the Bureau of Education for the natives of Alaska. Wm. Hamilton. 
No. 46. A study of distinguished high-school pupils in Iowa. Elmer E. Jones. 
No. 47. A biennial survey of public-school finance in the United States. F. H. 
Swift. 

No. 48. Suggestions for consolidating the rural schools of Beaufort County, N. C. 

Katherine M. Cook and E. E. Windes. 

No. 49. Statistics of State universities and State colleges, 1922. 

No. 50. Free textbooks for public-school pupils. Wm. It. Hood. 















